¹ FUNAI, Assessoria de Planejamento e Coordenação, “Programa de Desenvolvimento para a Nação Xavante,” 1978, Fundação Nacional do Ìndio, Documentação (Brasília), herein FUNAI, DOC.

² The classic ethnographic account on the Xavante is Maybury-Lewis, David, Akwẽ-Shavante Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974).Google Scholar

³ On frontier expansion in twentieth-century Brazil, see Foweraker, Joe, The Struggle for Land: A Political Economy of the Pioneer Frontier in Brazil from 1930 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on the Xavante, see Garfield, Seth, “‘Civilized’ but Discontent: The Xavante Indians and Government Policy in Brazil, 1937–1988” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996).Google Scholar

⁴ See, for example, Davis, Shelton H., Victims of the Miracle (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1977)Google Scholar; Ramos, Alcida Rita, Indigenism: Ethnic Politics in Brazil (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1998)Google Scholar; and Price, David, Before the Bulldozer: The Nambiquara Indians and the World Bank (Cabin John, MD: Seven Locks Press, 1989).Google Scholar

⁵ Davis, , Victims of the Miracle, pp. 70–71.Google Scholar

⁶ See, for example, Alves, Maria Helena Moreira, State and Opposition in Military Brazil (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988)Google Scholar; Alvarez, Sonia, Engendering Democracy in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990)Google Scholar and Corradi, Juan E., Fagen, Patricia Weiss, and Garretón, Manuel Antonio, eds., Fear at the Edge: State Terror and Resistance in Latin America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).Google Scholar On the “new social movements” as but one contender in a contested field of political projects and ideological alternatives, see Burdick, John, “Rethinking the Study of Social Movements: The Case of Christian Base Communities in Urban Brazil,” in Escobar, Arturo and Alvarez, Sonia E., eds., The Making of Social Movements in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 171–84Google Scholar. On the varied responses of rural workers to military government initiatives, see Maybury-Lewis, Biorn, The Politics of the Possible: The Brazilian Rural Workers Trade Union Movement, 1964–1985 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994).Google Scholar

⁷ Ortner, Sherry B., “Resistance and the Problem of Ethnographic Refusal,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 37 (1995), p. 175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸ In Fear at the Edge, see, for example, Garretón, “Fear in Miliary Regimes,” pp. 13–25; and Norbert Lechner, “Some People Die of Fear,” pp. 26–35.

⁹ On the Geisel presidency and the challenge of arbetura, see Skidmore, Thomas E., The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964–85 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 160–209.Google Scholar

¹⁰ See Hagopian, Frances, Traditional Politics and Regime Change in Brazil (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp.140–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹¹ See Hagopian, Traditional Politics; Linz, Juan J. and Stepan, Alfred, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), pp. 150–230 Google Scholar; Stepan, Alfred, ed., Democratizing Brazil: Problems of Transition and Consolidation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).Google Scholar

¹² See, in particular, Graham, Laura R., Performing Dreams: Discourses of Immortality among the Xavante of Central Brazil (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995)Google Scholar for an enlightening analysis of Xavante dream performance as a mechanism of sociocultural resistance and adaptation; for her discussion of the Xavante Project, see pp. 44–63. See also Da Silva, Aracy Lopes, Nomes e amigos: Da prãtica Xavante a urna reflexão sobre os Jê (São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, 1986).Google Scholar

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¹⁴ On the military project for agricultural modernization see, Grindle, , State and Countryside; Bernardo Sorj, Estado e classes saciais na agricultura (Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 1980)Google Scholar; Maybury-Lewis, B., The Politics of the Possible; Anthony Pereira, The End of the Peasantry: The Rural Labor Movement in Northeast Brazil, 1961–1988 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Houtzager, Peter, “State and Unions in the Transformation of the Brazilian Countryside, 1964–1979,” Latin American Research Review 33:2 (1998), pp. 103–42.Google Scholar

¹⁵ See Houtzager, , “State and Union,” pp. 103–142.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Speech by Reis, Maurício Rangel, reprinted in Ministério do Interior, Política indigenista - Governo do Presidente Ernesto Geisel, (Brasília, 1974).Google Scholar

¹⁷ On the military’s big developmental projects, see Schneider, Ben Ross, Politics Within the State: Elite Bureaucrats and Industrial Policy in Brazil (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991).Google Scholar

¹⁸ See Ammann, Safira Bezerra, Ideologia do desenvolvimento de comunidade no Brasil, (São Paulo: Editora Cortez, 1987).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Fernando Schiavini de Castro, “Relatório Geral Referente ao Projeto Xavante Posto Indígena Pimentel Barbosa—AJABAG,” P.I. Pimentel Barbosa, May 28, 1980, FUNAI, DOC.

²⁰ Folha de São Paulo, March 17, 1980.

²¹ Claudio Romero to the Director of the DGO, Brasília, November 1978, FUNAI, DOC.

²² David da Rocha, “Relatório,” P.I. Areôes, October 11, 1976, FUNAI, DOC.

²³ De Oliveira, Luis Cardoso, “Colonização e diferenciação: Os colonos de Canarana” (Master’s thesis: Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 1981), pp. 278–79.Google Scholar

²⁴ Ivan Baiochi, “Relatório final sobre o projeto Areões que Ivan Baiochi, Delegado da 7a DR submete ao superior julgamento do DGO,” October 25, 1977, FUNAI, DOC; and João Carlos Alves, Post Chief at Areões, “Relatório,” October 29, 1975, FUNAI, DOC.

²⁵ Claudio Romero to Director of the DGO of FUNAI, Brasília, November 1978, FUNAI, DOC.

²⁶ Brasil, Congresso Nacional, Câmara dos Deputados, Diário do Congresso Nacional, Projeto de Resolução No. 172, de 1978 (Comissão Parlamentar de Inquérito—Reservas Indígenas), Brasília, June 17, 1978, p. 15.

²⁷ FUNAI, Assessoria de Planejamento e Coordenação (ASPLAN), “Programa de desenvolvimento para a Nação Xavante,1978, FUNAI, DOC.

²⁸ On the legai status of indigenous peoples, see Da Cunha, Manuela Carneira, ed., Os direitos do índio: Ensaios e documentos (Sao’Paulo: Brasiliense, 1987).Google Scholar

²⁹ Alceu Mariz, FUNAI anthropologist, “Relatório sobre Couto Magalhães,” Brasília, April 14, 1978, FUNAI, DOC.

³⁰ Interview with Carlos Dumhiwe, Parabubure village, Parabubure Indigenous Reserve, July 1994.

³¹ The comments made by Tsorompré were recalled by Claudio Romero in a discussion with FUNAI officials in Brasília on May 9, 1980. Tape in the possession of Arthur Wollman, INCRA, Brasília.

³² See Flowers, Nancy, “Forager-Farmers: The Xavante Indians of Central Brazil” (Ph.D. diss., City University of New York, 1983), p. 312.Google Scholar

³³ Fernando Schiavini de Castro, “Relatório Geral de Atividades—Exercício de 1979—Pimentel Barbosa—AJABAG,” n.d., FUNAI, DOC.

³⁴ Tsudzawéré, Aniceto, quoted in O Estado de Mato Grosso, April 20, 1980.Google Scholar

³⁵ Da Silva, Aracy Lopes, “Dois séculos e meio de història Xavante,” in Da Cunha, Manuela Carneiro, ed., História dos Índios no Brasil (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1992), p. 377.Google Scholar

³⁶ Menezes, Claudia, “Os Xavante e o movimento de fronteira no leste matogrossense,” Revista de antropologia 2 (1982), pp. 81–82.Google Scholar

³⁷ Ibid.

³⁸ Jornal do Comércio, April 2, 1981.

³⁹ FUNAI, Diretoria de Assistência (DAI), “Projeto Integrado da Área Xavante-MT,” n.d., FUNAI, DOC; FUNAI, ASPLAN, “Atuação da FUNAI na Área Xavante, 1986, FUNAI, DOC.

⁴⁰ For further discussion, see Graham, , Performing Dreams, pp. 44–47.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Vieira Filho, João Paulo Botelho, “Problemas da aculturação alimentar dos Xavantes e Bororo,” Revista de antropologia 24 (1981), p. 31.Google Scholar

⁴² Corrio Braziliense (Brasília), May 6, 1980.

⁴³ Alves, , “Relatório,” February 1976,Google Scholar FUNAI, DOC.

⁴⁴ See Francisco dos Santos Magalhães, “Relatório de Ocorrência em 17–10–81,” n.d., FUNAI, DOC; and Luis Carlos Mattos Rodrigues, “Relatório Analítico do 30 e 40 Trimestre/82, Referente Implantação do Projeto Agrícola Xavante/Bororo,” n.d., FUNAI, DOC. For further discussion of intervillage rivalry see Garfield, “‘Civilized’ but Discontent,” pp. 481–553.

⁴⁵ Magalhães, “Relatório de Ocorrência em 17–10–81,” n.d. FUNAI, DOC.

⁴⁶ See Graham, , Performing Dreams, p. 67.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Maybury-Lewis, D., Akwẽ-Shavante Society, pp. 167–70.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ On indigenous leadership in Central Brazil, see Levi-Strauss, Claude, “The Social and Psychological Aspects of Chieftainship in a Primitive Tribe: The Nambikwara of Northwestern Mato Grosso” in Comparative Political Systems—Studies in the Politics of Pre-Industrial Societies, eds. Cohen, Ronald and Middleton, John (Garden City, NY: National History Press, 1967), p. 52 Google Scholar; Conklin, Beth and Graham, Laura, “The Shifting Middle Ground: Amazonian Indians and Ecopolitics,” American Anthropologist 97 (1995), pp. 695–710 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on other lowland Amazonian regions, see Jackson, Jean E., “Being and Becoming an Indian in the Vaupés,” in Nation-States and Indians in Latin America, eds. Urban, Greg and Sherzer, Joel (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991), pp. 131–55.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Maybury-Lewis, D., Akwẽ-Shavante Society, p. 190.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ FUNAI Departamento Geral de Operações (DGO), “Projeto de Idelva Nadir Kern e Lucia Magaly Ramos Sendeski referente ao curso de treinamento de monitores bilíngües xavante para o ano de 1982,” n.d., FUNAI, DOC.

⁵¹ Luiz Otávio Pinheiro da Cunha, “Criação de Nova Aldeia Xavante na Reserva Parabubure,” Aragarças, May 24, 1983, FUNAI, DOC.

⁵² Graham, , Performing Dreams, p. 9.Google Scholar

⁵³ José Carlos Alves, 7a Delegacia Regional of FUNAI, to Director of DGO, “Relatório de viagem de Emi de Paula e Souza,” March Ï6, 1983, FUNAI, DOC.

⁵⁴ Castro, “Relatório Geral de Atividades—Exercício de 1979,” FUNAI, DOC.

⁵⁵ I have borrowed here from De la Cadena, Marisol, “Women are More Indian: Gender and Ethnicity in Cuzco,” in Ethnicity, Markets and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology, eds. Larson, Brooke, Harris, Olivia, Tandeter, Enrique (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), pp. 319–28.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Odenir Pinto de Oliveira to Diretor do DGO, Barra do Garças, April 16, 1979, (Encaminhamento No. 005 AIABAG/79), FUNAI, DOC.

⁵⁷ See Flowers, Nancy, “Subsistence Strategy, Social Organization, and Warfare in Central Brazil in the Context of European Penetration,” in Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present, ed. Roosevelt, Anna (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994), p. 261.Google Scholar For a comparative study of the impact of western expansion on the political culture of the Yanomami, see Brian Ferguson, R., Yanomami Warfare: A Political History (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research, 1995).Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Castro, “Relatório Geral de Atividades—Exercício de 1979,” FUNAI, DOC.

⁵⁹ Izanoel Sodré, “Relatório sobre a situação do Projeto Xavante na Área do P.I. Culuene,” Barra do Garças, May 26, 1980, FUNAI, DOC.

⁶⁰ Castro, “Relatório Geral de Atividades—Exercício de 1979,” FUNAI, DOC.

⁶¹ Centro Ecumênico de Documentação (CEDI), Aconteceu (1980), p. 18.

⁶² Diário da Manhã, April 30, 1980.

⁶³ Williams, Suzanne, “Land Rights and the Manipulation of Identity: Official Indian Policy in Brazil” Journal of Latin American Studies 15 (1983), pp. 154–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also the scathing attack on FUNAI by Mato Grosso’s Secretary of Justice Domingos Sávio Brandão, quoted in Correlo Braziliense, May 1, 1980.

⁶⁴ da Veiga, Nobre, quoted in Price, Before the Bulldozer, p. 142.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Jornal de Brasília, May 6, 1980.

⁶⁶ See Jornal do Brasil, May 6, 1980.

⁶⁷ Statement by unnamed government official from taped meeting involving FUNAI leadership, Brasília, May 9, 1980, in the possession of Arturo Wollman, INCRA, Brasilia.

⁶⁸ See Jornal de Brasília, May 9, 1980; and O Estado de São Paulo, May 11, 1980.

⁶⁹ de Documentação e Informação, Informação, Aconteceu, (1980), pp. 38–39 Google Scholar; and Ramos, , Indigenism, pp. 168–94.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ For further background on the Juruna controversy, with a highly romanticized portrayal of the Xavante leader, see Juruna, Mario, Hohlfeldt, Antonio, and Hoffmann, Assis, O Gravador do Jumna (Porto Alegre: Mercado Alberto, 1982).Google Scholar For a penetrating analysis of the Juruna controversy, see Ramos, , Indigenism, 104–18Google Scholar; and Conklin and Graham, , “The Shifting Middle Ground,” p. 699.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Jornal de Brasília, April 12, 1980.

⁷² “Os últimos confutes entre os Xavante e a direção da Fundação Nacional do Índio…,” manifesto signed by the Sociedade Brasileira de Indigenistas (SBI), Conselho Indigenista Missionário (CIMI), Centro de Trabalho Indigenista (CTI), Associação Nacional de Apoio ao Ìndio (ANAI), Comissão ProÍndio-São Paulo, n.d., Conselho Indigenista Missionário (CIMI), Brasília, BR.MT.XV.6b/7.

⁷³ Correlo Braziliense, May 9, 1980.

⁷⁴ Francisco de Campos Figueiredo, “Relatório enfocando as atividades do indigenista Francisco de Campos Figueiredo no Projeto Xavante,” P.I. Couto Magalhães, May 30, 1980, FUNAI, DOC.

⁷⁵ Williams, , “Land Rights,” p. 158.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Ibid., p. 153.

⁷⁷ See Hagopian, , Traditional Politics” pp. 152–55.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Izanoél dos Santos Sodré, “Relatório sobre a Atuação do Projeto Xavante na Área do P.I. Culuene,” Barra do Garças, May 26, 1980, FUNAI, DOC.

⁷⁹ Ibid.

⁸⁰ Magalhães, “Relatório de Ocorrência em 17–10–81,” n.d., FUNAI, DOC.

⁸¹ Vicente, Antônio et al., “Da Comissão de Serviço Comunicação No 114/81 de 09/04/81 ao Senhor Chefe da Ajudância Autônoma de Barra do Garças, MT,” Barra do Garças, April 27,1981, FUNAI, DOC.Google Scholar

⁸² Sodré, “Relatório sobre a Atuação do Projeto Xavante,” May 26, 1980, FUNAI, DOC.

⁸³ Letter from the Sociedade Brasileira de Indigenistas to Minister of the Interior, Brasilia, June 16, 1980, Personal Archive of Odenir Pinto de Oliveira, Brasilia. For further discussion on the shake-up in FUNAI, see Gomes, Os índios e o Brasil, pp. 200–02; Price, Before the Bulldozer, pp. 141–48; and Correlo Braziliense, June 7, 1980.

⁸⁴ See Schneider, , Politics within the State, p. 89.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ CEDI, Aconteceu, (1980).

⁸⁶ Correlo Brazlliense, June 10, 1980.

⁸⁷ CEDI, Aconteceu, (1981).

⁸⁸ CEDI, Aconteceu, (1980).

⁸⁹ For further discussion of the fissioning of Xavante villages over the course of the 1980s, see Graham, , Performing Dreams, pp. 50–55.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Ibid., p. 53.

⁹² Izanoél Sodré, “Relatório de indigenista Izanoél Sodré sobre a viagem a São Marcos em cumprimento a comunicação de serviço NO. 182/80/AJABAG, 13/10/80,” Barra do Garças, October 20, 1980, FUNAI, DOC.

⁹³ Ibid.

⁹⁴ Dilce Claudino da Silva, “Relatório da Reunião,” Barra do Garças, August 14, 1980, FUNAI, DOC. In August 1983, under the administration of Octávio Ferreira Lima, FUNAI cancelled the practice of issuing formal credentials to indigenous leaders, stating this was an internal matter for indigenous communities. See FUNAI, Atos da Presidência, “Portaria no 835” August 1, 1983, FUNAI, DOC.

⁹⁵ Rodolfo Valentini, head of AJABAG, to José Antônio Silveira, Barra do Garças, April 13, 1981, FUNAI, DOC.

⁹⁶ Rodolpho Valentini to Director of DGO/FUNAI, Barra do Garças, October 29, 1980, FUNAI, DOC.

⁹⁷ Pinheiro da Cunha, Luiz Otávio, “Sobre a ‘Aldeia’ Buriti Alegre,” Aragarças, September 2, 1983 Google Scholar (Memo, no 440/7a DR/83), FUNAI, DOC.

⁹⁸ da Silva Lisowski, Dilce Claudino, “Relatório de reunião,” Barra do Garças, August 30, 1981 Google Scholar; and Father Gino Favaro, Director of Colônia Indígena S. Marcos, to Otávio Ferreira Lima, FUNAI President, São Marcos, July 11, 1983, FUNAI, DOC.

⁹⁹ Cunha, “Criação de Nova Aldeia Xavante na Reserva Parabubure,” Aragarças, May 24, 1983, FUNAI, DOC.

¹⁰⁰ José Carlos Al ves to Director of DGO, Aragarças, October 6, 1983 (Informação no. 018/7aDR/83), FUNAI, DOC.

¹⁰¹ See Williams, , “Land Rights,” p. 157.Google Scholar

¹⁰² See Comaroff, John and Comaroff, Jean, Ethnography and the Historical Imagination (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), p. 58.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ “Xavantaço ou Funailaço,” in CEDI, Povos Indígenas do Brasil, (1986).

¹⁰⁴ On efforts by interest groups to secure loyal appointees to state enterprise management, see Schneider, , Politics within the State, p. 85.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ “Xavantaço ou Funailaço.”

¹⁰⁶ Jornal de Brasília, May 23, 1985.

¹⁰⁷ José Carlos Barbosa, Delegado da 7a DR, “Declaração do Delegado—Ministério do Interior, Fundação Nacional do Índio, 7a DR,” reprinted in “Xavantaço ou Funailaço.”

¹⁰⁸ Graham, Laura, “Urna aldeia por um ‘projeto,’” Povos indígenas no Brasil-85/86 (São Paulo: CEDI, 1987), pp. 348–50Google Scholar; and Graham, , Performing Dreams, pp. 57–58.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ It is important to note that FUNAI was not entirely successful in restraining the Xavante from demanding additional land. Due to indigenous pressure, FUNAI would authorize the annexation of the region of Volta Grande to the Sangradouro reserve.

¹¹⁰ Tribunal das Contas da União, “Relatório e voto do Ministro Adhemar Ghisi, cujas conclusòes form acolhidas pelo Tribunal, na Sessão Extraordinária realizada em 30 de julho de 1987, ao deliberar, conforme figura no contexto desta Ata, sobre as contas da Fundação Nacional do Indio-FUNAI, exercí- cios de 1983 (Proc. no. 020 276/84–2), 1984 (Proc. no. 016 950/85–2) e 1985 (Proc. no. 010 028/86–2), examinadas em conjunto com processos de denúncia (Proes. nos. 006 262/84–9 e 013 437/84–4) e comos resultados de Inspeção Extraordinária in loco (Proc. 018 683/85–1),” Diário Oficial, Seção 1, (August 20, 1987), pp. 13273–78.

¹¹¹ Ibid.

¹¹² Graham, , Performing Dreams, p. 57.Google Scholar

¹¹³ See Schneider, , Politics within the State, pp. 16–17.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Graham, , Performing Dreams, pp. 59–61.Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ FUNAI, “Xavantes: Os Índios Privilegiados Têm ‘Lobby’ para presidir a FUNAI,” n.d., FUNAI, DOC.

¹¹⁶ ”Ao Excelentíssimo Senhor Presidente da República Fed. do Brasil, Dr. José Sarney,” letter signed by Xavante chiefs from various reservations, Brasília, September 7, 1987, CIMI, BR.MT.XV.6b\10.

¹¹⁷ Graham, , Performing Dreams, p. 61.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ See Scott, James C., Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), pp. 3–6; 262–306.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ See Schwartzman, Simon, Bases do autoritarismo brasileiro, 2d ed. (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Campus, 1982), p. 23.Google Scholar