Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-6tpvb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-15T14:07:41.417Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Turnout, Status, and Identity: Mobilizing Latinos to Vote with Group Appeals

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 December 2016

ALI A. VALENZUELA  and
MELISSA R. MICHELSON
ALI A. VALENZUELA*
Affiliation:
Princeton University
MELISSA R. MICHELSON*
Affiliation:
Menlo College
*
Ali A. Valenzuela is Assistant Professor of Politics, Princeton University ([email protected]).
Melissa R. Michelson is Professor of Political Science, Menlo College ([email protected]).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The rise of micro-targeting in American elections raises new questions about the effects of identity-based mobilization strategies. In this article, we bring together theories of expressive voting with literature on racial and ethnic identification to argue that prior studies, which have found either weak or null effects of identity messages targeting minority groups, have missed a crucial moderating variable—identity strength—that varies across both individuals and communities. Identity appeals can have powerful effects on turnout, but only when they target politicized identities to which individuals hold strong prior attachments. Using two innovative GOTV field experiments that rely on publicly available data as a proxy for identity strength, we show that the effects of both ethnic and national identity appeals among Latinos in California and Texas are conditional on the strength of those identities in different communities and among different Latino subgroups.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 110 , Issue 4 , November 2016 , pp. 615 - 630
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abrajano, Marisa A. 2010. Campaigning to the New American Electorate: Advertising to Latino Voters. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Abrajano, Marisa, and Panagopoulos, Costas. 2011. “Does Language Matter? The Impact of Spanish versus English-Language GOTV Efforts on Latino Turnout.” American Politics Research 39 (4):643–63.Google Scholar
Achen, Christopher H., and Bartels, Larry M.. 2016. Democracy for Realists: Why Elections Do Not Produce Responsive Government. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Andersen, Kristi. 2008. “In Whose Interest? Political Parties, Context, and the Incorporation of Immigrants.” In New Race Politics in America: Understanding Minority and Immigrant Politics, eds. Junn, J. and Haynie, K. L.. New York: Cambridge University Press, 17–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arceneaux, Kevin, and Nickerson, David W.. 2009. “Who Is Mobilized to Vote? A Re-Analysis of 11 Field Experiments.” American Journal of Political Science 53 (1):1–16.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A. 2007. “!Si Se Puede! Latino Candidates and the Mobilization of Latino Voters.” American Political Science Review 101 (3):425–41.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A. 2012. Ethnic Cues: The Role of Shared Ethnicity in Latino Political Participation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A., Manzano, Sylvia, Ramirez, Ricardo, and Rim, Kathy. 2009. “Mobilization, Participation, and Solidaridad: Latino Participation in the 2006 Immigration Protest Rallies.” Urban Affairs Review 44 (5):736–64.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A., and Nuño, Stephen A.. 2009. “The Effectiveness of Coethnic Contact on Latino Political Recruitment.” Political Research Quarterly 64 (2):448–59.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A., and Pedraza, Francisco I.. 2009. “The Renewal and Persistence of Group Identification in American Politics.” Electoral Studies 28 (4):595–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barreto, Matt, and Segura, Gary M.. 2014. Latino America: How America's Most Dynamic Population Is Poised to Transform the Politics of the Nation. New York: PublicAffairs.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A., Segura, Gary M., and Woods, Nathan D.. 2004. “The Mobilizing Effect of Majority–Minority Districts on Latino Turnout.” American Political Science Review 98 (1):65–75.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A., and Woods, Nathan D.. 2005. “Latino Voting Behavior in an Anti-Latino Political Context: The Case of Los Angeles County.” In Diversity in Democracy: Minority Representation in the United States, eds. Segura, G. M. and Bowler, S.. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 148–69.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert H. 1983. “Modernization, Ethnic Competition, and the Rationality of Politics in Contemporary Africa.” In State versus Ethnic Claims: African Policy Dilemmas, eds. Rothchild, D. and Olorunsola, V. A.. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 152–71.Google Scholar
Beltrán, Cristina. 2010. The Trouble with Unity: Latino Politics and the Creation of Identity. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Robert. 2013. Asians Fastest-Growing Race or Ethnic Group in 2012: Census Bureau Reports. Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census.Google Scholar
Billing, Michael, and Tajfel, Henri. 1973. “Social Categorization and Similarity in Intergroup Behavior.” European Journal of Social Psychology 3 (1):27–52.Google Scholar
Binder, Michael, Kogan, Vladimir, Kousser, Thad, and Panagopoulos, Costas. 2014. “Mobilizing Latino Voters: The Impact of Language and Co-Ethnic Policy Leadership.” American Politics Research 42 (4):677–99.Google Scholar
Bledsoe, Timothy, Welch, Susan, Sigelman, Lee, and Combs, Michael. 1995. “Residential Context and Racial Solidarity among African Americans.” American Journal of Political Science 39 (2):434–58.Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence, and Gilliam, Franklin D. Jr.. 1990. “Race, Sociopolitical Participation, and Black Empowerment.” American Political Science Review 84 (2):377–93.Google Scholar
Bowler, Shaun, Nicholson, Stephen P., and Segura, Gary M.. 2006. “Earthquakes and Aftershocks: Race, Direct Democracy, and Partisan Change.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (1):146–59.Google Scholar
Branton, Regina. 2007. “Latino Attitudes toward Various Areas of Public Policy: The Importance of Acculturation.” Political Research Quarterly 60 (2):293–303.Google Scholar
Brewer, Marilynn B., and Miller, Norman. 1984. “Beyond the Contact Hypothesis: Theoretical Perspectives on Desegregation.” In Groups in Contact: The Psychology of Desegregation, eds. Miller, N. and Brewer, M. B.. Orlando: Academic Press, 281–302.Google Scholar
Cadava, Geraldo L. 2013. Standing on Common Ground: The Making of a Sunbelt Borderland. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, Andrea Louise, Wong, Cara, and Citrin, Jack. 2006. “‘Racial Threat,' Partisan Climate, and Direct Democracy: Contextual Effects in Three California Initiatives.” Political Behavior 28 (1):129–50.Google Scholar
Campbell, David E. 2004. “Acts of Faith: Churches and Political Engagement.” Political Behavior 26 (2):155–80.Google Scholar
Carmines, Edward G., and Stimson, James A.. 1986. “On the Structure and Sequence of Issue Evolution.” American Political Science Review 80 (3):901–20.Google Scholar
Carmines, Edward G., and Stimson, James A.. 1989. Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Chong, Dennis, and Kim, Dukhong. 2006. “The Experiences and Effects of Economic Status among Racial and Ethnic Minorities.” American Political Science Review 100 (3):335–51.Google Scholar
Citrin, Jack, Lerman, Amy, Murakami, Michael, and Pearson, Kathryn. 2007. “Testing Huntington: Is Hispanic Immigration a Threat to American Identity?” Perspectives on Politics 5 (1):31–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Citrin, Jack, and Sears, David O.. 2009. “Balancing National and Ethnic Identities: The Psychology of E Pluribus Unum.” In Measuring Identity: A Guide for Social Scientists, ed. Abdelal, R., Herrera, Y. M., Johnston, A. I., and McDermott, R.. New York: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 145–74.Google Scholar
Cohen, Cathy J., and Dawson, Michael C.. 1993. “Neighborhood Poverty and African American Politics.” American Political Science Review 87 (1):286–302.Google Scholar
Cox, Gary W., and Munger, Michael C.. 1989. “Closeness, Expenditures, and Turnout in the 1982 U.S. House Elections.” American Political Science Review 83 (1):217–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cramer Walsh, Katherine. 2012. “Putting Inequality in Its Place: Rural Consciousness and the Power of Perspective.” American Political Science Review 106 (3):517–32.Google Scholar
Davenport, Tiffany C. 2010. “Public Accountability and Political Participation: Effects of a Face-to-Face Feedback Intervention on Voter Turnout of Public Housing Residents.” Political Behavior 32 (3):337–68.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 1994. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
DeFrancesco Soto, Victoria M., and Merolla, Jennifer L.. 2008. “Se Habla Espanol: Ethnic Campaign Strategies and Latino Voting Behavior.” In New Race Politics in America: Understanding Minority and Immigrant Politics, ed. Junn, J. and Haynie, K. L.: New York: Cambridge University Press, 114–35.Google Scholar
DeSipio, Louis. 1996. Counting on the Latino Vote: Latinos as a New Electorate. Charlottesville, VA: Univeresity of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Devos, Thierry, and Banaji, Mahzarin R.. 2005. “America = White?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (3):447–66.Google Scholar
Druckman, James N., Green, Donald P., Kuklinski, James H., and Lupia, Arthur. 2011. “Experimentation in Political Science..” In Cambridge Handbook of Experimental Political Science, Cambridge University Press, 3–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eifert, Benn, Miguel, Edward, and Posner, Daniel N.. 2010. “Political Competition and Ethnic Identification in Africa.” American Journal of Political Science 54 (2):492–510.Google Scholar
Ellemers, Naomi, Spears, Russell, and Doosje, Bertjan. 2002. “Self and Social Identity.” Annual Review of Psychology 53:161–86.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D. [2006] 2008. “Ethnic Mobilization and Ethnic Violence.” In The Oxford Handbook of Political Economy, ed. Weingast, B. R. and Wittman, D. A.. New York: Oxford University Press, 852–68.Google Scholar
File, Thom. 2013. “The Diversifying Electorate—Voting Rates by Race and Hispanic Origin in 2012 (and Other Recent Elections).” Current Population Survey Reports. P20–569. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.Google Scholar
Fraga, Luis R., Garcia, John A., Hero, Rodney, Jones-Correa, Michael, Martinez-Ebers, Valerie, and Segura, Gary M.. 2006. Latino National Survey (LNS). Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor].Google Scholar
García Bedolla, Lisa. 2005. Fluid Borders: Latino Power, Identity and Politics in Los Angeles. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
García Bedolla, Lisa, and Michelson, Melissa R.. 2009. “What Do Voters Need to Know? Testing the Role of Cognitive Information in Asian American Voter Mobilization.” American Politics Research 37 (2):254–74.Google Scholar
García Bedolla, Lisa, and Michelson, Melissa R.. 2012. Mobilizing Inclusion: Transforming the Electorate through Get-Out-the-Vote Campaigns. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Gay, Claudine. 2001. “The Effect of Black Congressional Representation on Political Participation.” American Political Science Review 95 (3):589–602.Google Scholar
Gay, Claudine. 2004. “Putting Race in Context: Identifying the Environmental Determinants of Black Racial Attitudes.” American Political Science Review 98 (4):547–62.Google Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., and Green, Donald P.. 2000. “The Effects of Canvassing, Telephone Calls, and Direct Mail on Voter Turnout: A Field Experiment.” American Political Science Review 94 (3):653–63.Google Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., and Green, Donald P.. 2012. “ One-Sided Noncompliance.” In Field Experiments: Design, Analysis and Interpretation. New York: W. W. Norton and Co. Google Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., Green, Donald P., and Larimer, Christopher W.. 2008. “Social Pressure and Voter Turnout: Evidence from a Large-Scale Field Experiment.” American Political Science Review 102 (1):33–48.Google Scholar
Golash-Boza, Tanya. 2006. “Dropping the Hyphen? Becoming Latino(a)-American through Racialized Assimilation.” Social Forces 85 (1):27–55.Google Scholar
Green, Donald P. 2004. “Mobilizing African-American Voters Using Direct Mail and Commercial Phone Banks: A Field Experiment.” Political Research Quarterly 57 (2):245–55.Google Scholar
Green, Donald P., and Gerber, Alan S.. 2008. Get out the Vote: How to Increase Voter Turnout. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Brookings.Google Scholar
Green, Donald P., and Michelson, Melissa R.. 2009. “ACORN Experiments in Minority Voter Mobilization.” In “The People Shall Rule”: ACORN, Community Organizing, and the Struggle for Economic Justice, ed. Fisher, R.. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 235–48.Google Scholar
Hero, Rodney E., and Campbell, Anne G.. 1996. “Understanding Latino Political Participation: Exploring the Evidence from the Latino National Political Survey.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18 (2):129–41.Google Scholar
Hersh, Eitan D., and Schaffner, Brian F.. 2013. “Targeted Campaign Appeals and the Value of Ambiguity.” Journal of Politics 75 (2):520–34.Google Scholar
Hillygus, D. Sunshine, and Shields, Todd G.. 2008. The Persuadable Voter: Wedge Issues in Presidential Campaigns. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Daniel J. 2010. “Politicized Places: Explaining Where and When Immigrants Provoke Local Opposition.” American Political Science Review 104 (1):40–60.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Huddy, Leonie. 2001. “From Social to Political Identity: A Critical Examination of Social Identity Theory.” Political Psychology 22 (1):127–56.Google Scholar
Hutchings, Vincent L. 1998. “Issue Salience and Support for Civil Rights Legislation among Southern Democrats.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 23 (4):521–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchings, Vincent L., and Valentino, Nicholas A.. 2004. “The Centrality of Race in American Politics.” Annual Review of Political Science 7:383–408.Google Scholar
Ishiyama, John. 2012. “Explaining Ethnic Bloc Voting in Africa.” Democratization 19 (4):761–88.Google Scholar
Issenberg, Sasha. 2012. The Victory Lab: The Secret Science of Winning Campaigns. New York: Crown Publishers.Google Scholar
Jackson, Melinda S. 2011. “Priming the Sleeping Giant: The Dynamics of Latino Political Identity and Vote Choice.” Political Psychology 32 (4):691–716.Google Scholar
Jamieson, Amie, Shin, Hyon B., and Day, Jennifer. 2002. “Voting and Registration in the Election of November 2000.” Population Report. P20–542. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.Google Scholar
Jiménez, Thomás R. 2010. Replenished Ethnicity: Mexican Americans, Immigration, and Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Laitin, David D. 1998. Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad: Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Lau, Richard R. 1989. “Individual and Contextual Influences on Group Identification.” Social Psychology Quarterly 52 (3):220–31.Google Scholar
Maltby, Elizabeth A., Rocha, Rene R., and Alvarado, John. 2015. “Immigration Enforcement and the Erosion of Latino Identity.” Presented at the Western Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Las Vegas.Google Scholar
Mann, Christopher B. 2010. “Is There Backlash to Social Pressure? A Large-Scale Field Experiment on Voter Mobilization.” Political Behavior 32 (3):387–407.Google Scholar
Masuoka, Natalie. 2006. “Together They Become One: Examining the Predictors of Panethnic Group Consciousness among Asian Americans and Latinos.” Social Science Quarterly 87 (5):993–1011.Google Scholar
Matland, Richard E., and Murray, Gregg R.. 2012. “An Experimental Test of Mobilization Effects in a Latino Community.” Political Research Quarterly 65 (1):192–205.Google Scholar
McConnaughy, Corrine M., White, Ismail K., Leal, David L., and Casellas, Jason P.. 2010. “A Latino on the Ballot: Explaining Coethnic Voting among Latinos and the Response of White Americans.” Journal of Politics 72 (4):1199–211.Google Scholar
Michelson, Melissa R. 2003. “Getting out the Latino Vote: How Door-to-Door Canvassing Influences Voter Turnout in Rural Central California.” Political Behavior 25 (3):247–63.Google Scholar
Michelson, Melissa R. 2005. “Meeting the Challenge of Latino Voter Mobilization.” ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 601 (1):85–101.Google Scholar
Michelson, Melissa R. 2006. “Mobilizing the Latino Youth Vote: Some Experimental Results.” Social Science Quarterly 87 (5):1188–206.Google Scholar
Michelson, Melissa R., and Bedolla, Lisa García. 2014. “Mobilization by Different Means: Nativity and GOTV in the United States.” International Migration Review 48 (3):710–27.Google Scholar
Michelson, Melissa R., Bedolla, Lisa García, and McConnell, Margaret A.. 2009. “Heeding the Call: The Effect of Targeted Two-Round Phone Banks on Voter Turnout.” Journal of Politics 71 (4):1549–63.Google Scholar
Mora, G. Cristina. 2014. Making Hispanics: How Activists, Bureaucrats and Media Constructed a New American. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Murray, Gregg R., and Matland, Richard E.. 2014. “Mobilization Effects Using Mail: Social Pressure, Descriptive Norms, and Timing.” Political Research Quarterly 67 (2):304–19.Google Scholar
Nagel, Joane. 1994. “Constructing Ethnicity: Creating and Recreating Ethnic Identity and Culture.” Social Problems 41 (1):152–76.Google Scholar
Nickerson, David W. 2005. “Scalable Protocols Offer Efficient Design for Field Experiments.” Political Analysis 13 (3):233–52.Google Scholar
Nickerson, David W. 2007. “Quality Is Job One: Professional and Volunteer Voter Mobilization Calls.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (2):269–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nie, Norman H. 2011. “Will Hispanics Take over American Politics?” Pacific Standard. https://psmag.com/will-hispanics-take-over-american-politics-a865d4cd39f7#.43ad2ora1 (Accessed 23 November 2015).Google Scholar
Padilla, Félix M. 1985. Latino Ethnic Consciousness: The Case of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans in Chicago. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Panagopoulos, Costas, and Green, Donald P.. 2010. “Spanish-Language Radio Advertisements and Latino Voter Turnout in the 2006 Congressional Elections: Field Experimental Evidence.” Political Research Quarterly. 64 (3):588–99.Google Scholar
Panagopoulos, Costas, Larimer, Christopher W., and Condon, Meghan. 2014. “Social Pressure, Descriptive Norms, and Voter Mobilization.” Political Behavior 36 (2):451–69.Google Scholar
Pantoja, Aadrian D., Ramirez, Ricardo, and Segura, Gary M.. 2001. “Citizens by Choice, Voters by Necessity: Patterns in Political Mobilization by Naturalized Latinos.” Political Research Quarterly 54 (4):729.Google Scholar
Pantoja, Aadrian D., and Segura, Gary M.. 2003. “Does Ethnicity Matter? Descriptive Representation in Legislatures and Political Alienation Among Latinos.” Social Science Quarterly 84 (2):441–60.Google Scholar
Pantoja, Adrian D., and Segura, Gary M.. 2003b. “Fear and Loathing in California: Contextual Threat and Political Sophistication among Latino Voters.” Political Behavior 25 (3):265–86.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O. 2013. “Ricochet: How Elite Discourse Politicizes Racial and Ethnic Identities.” Political Behavior. 37 (1):155–80.Google Scholar
Portes, Alejandro, and MacLeod, Dag. 1996. “What Shall I Call Myself? Hispanic Identity Formation in the Second Generation.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 19 (3):523–47.Google Scholar
Pulido, Laura, and Pastor, Manuel. 2013. “Where in the World Is Juan—and What Color Is He? The Geography of Latina/o Racial Identity in Southern California.” American Quarterly 65 (2):309–41.Google Scholar
Ramírez, Ricardo. 2005. “Giving Voice to Latino Voters: A Field Experiment on the Effectiveness of a National Nonpartisan Mobilization Effort.” ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 601 (1):66–84.Google Scholar
Ramírez, Ricardo. 2007. “Segmented Mobilization: Latino Nonpartisan Get-Out-the-Vote Efforts in the 2000 General Election.” American Politics Research 35 (2):155–75.Google Scholar
Rogers, Todd, Fox, Craig R., and Gerber, Alan S.. 2013. “Rethinking Why People Vote: Voting as Dynamic Social Expression.” In The Behavioral Foundations of Public Policy, ed. Shafir, E.. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 91–107.Google Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Hansen, John Mark. 1993. Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Sanchez, Gabriel R. 2006a. “The Role of Group Consciousness in Latino Public Opinion.” Political Research Quarterly 59 (3):435–46.Google Scholar
Sanchez, Gabriel R. 2006. “The Role of Group Consciousness in Political Participation among Latinos in the United States.” American Politics Research 34 (4):427–50.Google Scholar
Sanchez, Gabriel R., and Masuoka, Natalie. 2010. “Brown-Utility Heuristic? The Presence and Contributing Factors to Latino Linked Fate.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 32 (4):519–31.Google Scholar
Schildkraut, Deborah J. 2005. “The Rise and Fall of Political Engagement among Latinos: The Role of Identity and Perceptions of Discrimination.” Political Behavior 27 (3):285–312.Google Scholar
Schildkraut, Deborah J. 2011. Americanism in the Twenty-First Century: Public Opinion in the Age of Immigration. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Ronald Sr., Alex-Assensoh, Yvette M., Aoki, Andrew L., and Hero, Rodney E.. 2009. Newcomers, Outsiders, and Insiders: Immigrants and American Racial Politics in the Early Twenty-first Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Shaw, Daron, De la Garza, Rodolfo O., and Lee, Jongho. 2000. “Examining Latino Turnout in 1996: A Three-State, Validated Survey Approach.” American Journal of Political Science 44 (2):332–40.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, ed. 1982. Social Identity and Intergroup Relations. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, Paul, Lopez, Mark Hugo, Martínez, Jessica Hamar, and Velasco, Gabriel. 2012. “When Labels Don't Fit: Hispanics and Their Views of Identity.” Pew Hispanic Center. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.Google Scholar
Transue, John E. 2007. “Identity Salience, Identity Acceptance, and Racial Policy Attitudes: American National Identity as a Uniting Force.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (1):78–91.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, Ali A. 2011. “Identity in Context: How Neighborhoods, Churches and Campaigns Shape Latino Unity.” Ph.D. diss. Stanford University.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, and Nie, Norman H.. 1987. Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Brady, Henry E.. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, Brady, Henry, and Nie, Norman H.. 1993. “Race, Ethnicity and Political Resources: Participation in the United States.” British Journal of Political Science 23 (4):453–97.Google Scholar
Weiner, Rachel. 2013. “Reince Priebus Gives GOP Prescription for Future.” Washington Post, March 18, 2013.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, Steven I. 2004. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wolfinger, Raymond E., and Rosenstone, Steven J.. 1980. Who Votes? New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Wong, Janelle S. 2005. “Mobilizing Asian American Voters: A Field Experiment.” ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 601 (1):102–14.Google Scholar
Zepeda-Millán, Chris, and Wallace, Sophia J.. 2014. “Racialization in Times of Contention: How Social Movements Influence Latino Racial Identity.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 1 (4):510–27.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Valenzuela and Michelson supplementary material

Valenzuela and Michelson supplementary material 1

Download Valenzuela and Michelson supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 67.5 KB
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.