Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-b95js Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-10T01:29:43.283Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Trauma and Turnout: The Political Consequences of Traumatic Events

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 December 2022

WAYDE Z. C. MARSH Open the ORCID record for WAYDE Z. C. MARSH [Opens in a new window]
WAYDE Z. C. MARSH*
Affiliation:
Washington University in St. Louis, United States
*
Wayde Z. C. Marsh, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Weidenbaum Center on the Economy, Government, and Public Policy and the Department of Political Science, Washington University in St. Louis, United States, [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

How do traumatic experiences shape individuals’ political behavior? Political scientists have investigated the behavioral changes caused by natural disasters and terrorist attacks, but no work to date has investigated the political consequences of such events using the framework of psychological trauma. In this study, I develop a theory of posttraumatic political response that explains how traumatic events influence voter turnout. To test this theory, I identify the effects of three different types of traumatic events: Black church arson attacks, mass shootings, and natural disasters. I find that a traumatic event decreases turnout in the next presidential election by 0.5–3.7 percentage points, but Black social identity conditions this effect—church arsons and Hurricane Katrina mobilize Black voters. Finally, I find that closer temporal proximity to an election increases the likelihood of a mobilizing effect.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 117 , Issue 3 , August 2023 , pp. 1036 - 1052
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Achen, Christopher H., and Bartels, Larry M.. 2016. Democracy for Realists. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahern, Jennifer, Galea, Sandro, Resnick, Heidi, Kilpatrick, Dean, Bucuvalas, Michael, Gold, Joel, and Vlahov, David. 2002. “Television Images and Psychological Symptoms after the September 11 Terrorist Attacks.” Psychiatry 65 (4): 289–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angrist, Joshua D., and Pischke, Jörn-Steffen. 2009. Mostly Harmless Econometrics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antonovsky, Aaron. 1979. Health, Stress, and Coping. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA). 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth ed. Washington, DC: APA Publishing.Google Scholar
Atkeson, Lonna Rae, and Maestas, Cherie D.. 2012. Catastrophic Politics: How Extraordinary Events Redefine Perceptions of Government. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Azari, Julia R. 2013. “Presidential Mandates and the Leadership Dilemma: William J. Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama.” In The Presidential Leadership Dilemma, eds. Azari, Julie R., Brown, Lara M., and Nwokora, Zim G., 39–60. Albany: State Univeristy of New York Press.Google Scholar
Barnes, Michael D., Hanson, Carl L., Len, M. B. Novilla, Meacham, Aaron T., McIntyre, Emily, and Erickson, Brittany C.. 2008. “Analysis of Media Agenda Setting during and after Hurricane Katrina: Implications for Emergency Preparedness, Disaster Response, and Disaster Policy.” American Journal of Public Health 98 (4): 604–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, Nathaniel. 2020. “Estimating Grouped Data Models with a Binary-Dependent Variable and Fixed Effects via a Logit versus a Linear Probability Model: The Impact of Dropped Units.” Political Analysis 28 (1): 139–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benight, Charles, and Harper, Michelle. 2002. “Coping Self-Efficacy Perceptions as a Mediator between Acute Stress Response and Long-Term Distress Following Natural Disasters.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 15 (3): 177–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benight, Charles C. 2004. “Collective Efficacy Following a Series of Natural Disasters.” Anxiety, Stress, & Coping 17 (4): 401–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beyerlein, Kraig, and Andrews, Kenneth T.. 2008. “Black Voting during the Civil Rights Movement: A Micro-Level Analysis.” Social Forces 87 (1): 65–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birkland, Thomas A. 1997. After Disaster: Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Birkland, Thomas A. 1998. “Focusing Events, Mobilization, and Agenda Setting.” Journal of Public Policy 18 (1): 53–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birkland, Thomas A., and Lawrence, Regina G.. 2009. “Media Framing and Policy Change after Columbine.” American Behavioral Scientist 52 (10): 1405–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwell, Matthew, and Glynn, Adam N.. 2018. “How to Make Causal Inferences with Time-Series Cross-Sectional Data under Selection on Observables.” American Political Science Review 112 (4): 1067–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Danice L. 2008. “African American Resiliency: Examining Racial Socialization and Social Support as Protective Factors.” Journal of Black Psychology 34 (1): 32–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownlow, Louis. 1949. The President and the Presidency. Chicago, IL: Public Administration Service.Google Scholar
Bryant, Richard A., Nickerson, Angela, Creamer, Mark, O’Donnell, Meaghan, Forbes, David, Galatzer-Levy, Isaac, McFarlane, Alexander C., et al. 2015. “Trajectory of Post-Traumatic Stress Following Traumatic Injury: 6-Year Follow-Up.” The British Journal of Psychiatry 206 (5): 417–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burch, Traci. 2021. “Not All Black Lives Matter: Officer-Involved Deaths and the Role of Victim Characteristics in Shaping Political Interest and Voter Turnout.” Perspectives on Politics, 1–17. doi:10.1017/S1537592721003157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Christopher. 2000. “Social Structure, Space and Sentiment: Searching for Common Ground in Sociological Conceptions of Community.” In Research in Community Sociology, ed. Chekki, Dan A., 21–57. Stamford, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Elisha, Gunderson, Anna, Jackson, Kaylyn, Zachary, Paul, Clark, Tom S., Glynn, Adam N., and Owens, Michael Leo. 2019. “Do Officer-Involved Shootings Reduce Citizen Contact with Government?” Journal of Politics 81 (3): 1111–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Col, Jeanne-Marie. 2007. “Managing Disasters: The Role of Local Goverment.” Public Administration Review 67 (1): 114–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, Hazel Bell James. 2008. “‘George Bush Doesn’t Care about Black People’: Hip Hop, Public Discourse, and Black Politics in the Early 21st Century.” PhD diss., University of Southern Mississippi.Google Scholar
Comfort, Louise K., Birkland, Thomas A., Cigler, Beverly A., and Nance, Earthea. 2010. “Retrospectives and Prospectives on Hurricane Katrina: Five Years and Counting.” Public Administration Review 70 (5): 669–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hindash, Cowden, Alexandra, H., Lujan, Callan, Howard, Meghan, O’Donovan, Aoife, and Anne Richards. 2019. “Gender Differences in Threat Biases: Trauma Type Matters in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 32 (5): 701–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Darren W., and Silver, Brian D.. 2004. “Civil Liberties vs. Security: Public Opinion in the Context of the Terrorist Attacks on America.” American Journal of Political Science 48 (1): 28–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Chaisemartin, Clément, and D’Haultfoeuille, Xavier. 2019. “Two-Way Fixed Effects Estimators with Heterogeneous Treatment Effects.” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 25904.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Jong, Joop T. V. M., Komproe, Ivan H., Van Ommeren, Mark, el Masri, Mustafa, Arya, Mesfin, Khaled, Noureddine, van de Put, Willem, et al. 2001. “Lifetime Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in 4 Postconflict Settings.” Journal of the American Medical Association 286 (5): 555–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickstein, Benjamin D., Suvak, Michael, Litz, Brett T., and Adler, Amy B.. 2010. “Heterogeneity in the Course of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Trajectories of Symptomatology.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 23 (3): 331–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ding, Peng, and Li, Fan. 2019. “A Bracketing Relationship between Difference-in-Differences and Lagged-Dependent-Variable Adjustment.” Political Analysis 27 (4): 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drury, John, Cocking, Chris, and Reicher, Steve. 2009. “Everyone for Themselves? A Comparative Study of Crowd Solidarity among Emergency Survivors.” British Journal of Social Psychology 48 (3): 487–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dyb, Grete, Jensen, Tine K., Nygaard, Egil, Ekeberg, Oivind, Diseth, Trond H., Wentzel-Larsen, Tore, and Thoresen, Siri. 2014. “Post-Traumatic Stress Reactions in Survivors of the 2011 Massacre on Utøya Island, Norway.” The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science 204 (5): 361–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliott, Diana M. 1997. “Traumatic Events: Prevalence and Delayed Recall in the General Population.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 65 (5): 811–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fletcher, Michael A. 1996. “U.S. Investigates Suspicious Fires at Southern Black Churches.” Washington Post, February 03.Google Scholar
Ford, Carol A., Udry, J. Richard, Gleiter, Karin, and Chantala, Kim. 2003. “Reactions of Young Adults to September 11, 2001.” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 157 (6): 572–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowler, Anthony, and Hall, Andrew B.. 2018. “Do Shark Attacks Influence Presidential Elections? Reassessing a Prominent Finding on Voter Competence.” Journal of Politics 80 (4): 1423–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gasper, John T., and Reeves, Andrew. 2011. “Make It Rain? Retrospection and the Attentive Electorate in the Context of Natural Disasters.” American Journal of Political Science 55 (2): 340–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gates, Henry Louis Jr. 2021. The Black Church: This is Our Story, This is Our Story. New York: Penguin Press.Google Scholar
Gerber, Brian J. 2007. “Disaster Management in the United States: Examining Key Political and Policy Challenges.” Policy Studies Journal 35 (2): 227–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman-Bacon, Andrew. 2018.” Difference-in-Differences with Variation in Treatment Timing.” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 25018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansford, Thomas G., and Gomez, Brad T.. 2010. “Estimating the Electoral Effects of Voter Turnout.” American Political Science Review 104 (2): 268–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harden, Jeffrey J., and Kirkland, Justin H.. 2021. “Does Transparency Inhibit Political Compromise?” American Journal of Political Science 65 (2): 493–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hassell, Hans J. G., Holbein, John B., and Baldwin, Matthew. 2020. “Mobilize for Our Lives? School Shootings and Democratic Accountability in U.S. Elections.” American Political Science Review 114 (4): 1375–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatch, Stephani L., and Dohrenwend, Bruce P.. 2007. “Distribution of Traumatic and Other Stressful Life Events by Race/Ethnicity, Gender, SES, and Age: A Review of the Research.” American Journal of Community Psychology 40 (3–4): 313–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawdon, James, and Ryan, John. 2011. “Social Relations that Generate and Sustain Solidarity after a Mass Tragedy.” Social Forces 89 (4): 1363–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Healy, Andrew J., and Malhotra, Neil. 2009. “Myopic Voters and Natural Disaster Policy.” American Political Science Review 103 (3): 387–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heersink, Boris, Peterson, Brenton D., and Jenkins, Jeffery A.. 2017. “Disasters and Elections: Estimating the Net Effect of Damage and Relief in Historical Perspective.” Political Analysis 25 (2): 260–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hersh, Eitan D. 2013. “Long-Term Effect of September 11 on the Political Behavior of Victims’ Families and Neighbors.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 (52): 20959–963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huddy, Leonie, and Feldman, Stanley. 2006. “Worlds Apart: Blacks and Whites React to Hurricane Katrina.” Du Bois Review 3 (1): 97–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huddy, Leonie, Feldman, Stanley, Taber, Charles, and Lahav, Gallya. 2005. “Threat, Anxiety, and Support of Antiterrorism Policies.” American Journal of Political Science 49 (3): 593–608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchison, Emma. 2010. “Trauma and the Politics of Emotions: Constituting Identity, Security and Community after the Bali Bombing.” International Relations 24 (1): 65–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, and Kim, In Song. 2021. “On the Use of Two-Way Fixed Effects Regression Models for Causal inference with Panel Data.” Political Analysis 29 (3): 405–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, Kim, In Song, and Wang, Erik. 2021. “Matching Methods for Causal Inference with Time-Series Cross-Sectional Data.” American Journal of Political Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12685 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janoff-Bulman, Ronnie. 1992. Shattered Assumptions: Towards a New Psychology of Trauma. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Jetten, Jolanda, Haslam, Catherine, and Haslam, S. Alexander. 2012. The Social Cure: Identity, Health, and Well-Being. London: Psychology Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Daniel B., Troesken, Werner, and Walsh, Randall. 2017. “Political Participation in a Violent Society: The Impact of Lynching on Voter Turnout in the Post-Reconstruction South.” Journal of Development Economics 129:29–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinzie, David J., Boehnlein, James K., Riley, Crystal, and Sparr, Landy. 2002. “The Effects of September 11 on Traumatized Refugees: Reactiviation of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 190 (7): 437–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lodge, Milton, and Taber, Charles S.. 2013. The Rationalizing Voter. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, Nigel, Chamberlain, Kerry, and Vincent, Carol. 1994. “Effect of the Gulf War on Reactivation of Adverse Combat-Related Memories in Vietnam Veterans.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 50 (2): 138–44.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lowe, Sarah R., Galea, Sandro, Uddin, Monica, and Koenen, Karestan C.. 2014. “Trajectories of Posttraumatic Stress among Urban Residents.” American Journal of Community Psychology 53 (1–2): 159–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyon, Gregory. 2021. “The Conditional Effects of Health on Voter Turnout.” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 46 (3): 409–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsh, Wayde Z. C. 2022. “Replication Data for: Trauma and Turnout: The Political Consequences of Traumatic Events.” Harvard Dataverse. Dataset. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/MXKMSE.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthieu, Monica, and Ivanoff, André. 2006. “Treatment of Human-Caused Trauma: Attrition in the Adult Outcomes Research.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 21 (12): 1654–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClerking, Harwood K., and McDaniel, Eric L.. 2005. “Belonging and Doing: Political Churches and Black Political Participation.” Political Psychology 26 (5): 721–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDaniel, Eric L. 2008. Politics in the Pews: The Political Mobilization of Black Churches. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDaniel, Eric L. 2013. “The Black Church and Defining the Political.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 1 (1): 93–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metzl, Jonathan M., and MacLeish, Kenneth T.. 2015. “Mental Illness, Mass Shootings, and the Politics of American Firearms.” American Journal of Public Health 105 (2): 240–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mueller, John E. 1973. War, Presidents and Public Opinion. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Muldoon, Orla T. 2013. “Understanding the Impact of Political Violence in Childhood: A Theoretical Review Using a Social Identity Approach.” Clinical Psychology Review 33 (8): 929–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muldoon, Orla T., Acharya, Khagendra, Jay, Sarah, Adhikari, Kamal, Pettigrew, Judith, and Lowe, Robert D.. 2017. “Community Identity and Collective Efficacy: A Social Cure for Traumatic Stress in Post-Earthquake Nepal.” European Journal of Social Psychology 47 (7): 904–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muldoon, Orla T., and Lowe, Robert D.. 2012. “Social Identity, Groups, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.” Political Psychology 33 (2): 259–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muldoon, Orla T., Lowe, Robert D., Jetten, Jolanda, Cruwys, Tegan, and Haslam, S. Alexander. 2020. “Personal and Political: Post-Traumatic Stress through the Lens of Social Identity, Power, and Politics.” Political Psychology 42 (3): 501–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, Larry G. 2000. Down by the Riverside: Readings in African American Religion. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Nader, Kathleen O., Pynoos, Robert S., Fairbanks, Lynn A., Al-Ajeel, Manal, and Al-Asfour, Abdulrahman. 1993. “A Preliminary Study of PTSD and Grief among the Children of Kuwait Following the Gulf Crisis.” British Journal of Clinical Psychology 32 (4): 407–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norrander, Barbara, and Wilcox, Clyde. 1993. “Rallying around the Flag and Partisan Change: The Case of the Persian Gulf War.” Political Research Quarterly 46 (4): 759–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ojeda, Christopher, and Pacheco, Julianna. 2019. “Health and Voting in Young Adulthood.” British Journal of Political Science 49 (3): 1163–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osofsky, Joy D., Osofsky, Howard J., Weems, Carl F., King, Lucy S., and Hansel, Tonya C.. 2015. “Trajectories of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms among Youth Exposed to Both Natural and Technological Disasters.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 56 (12): 1347–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pacheco, Julianna, and Ojeda, Christopher. 2020. “A Healthy Democracy? Evidence of Unequal Representation across Health Status.” Political Behavior 42:1245–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfefferbaum, Betty C. 2001. “The Impact of the Oklahoma City Bombing on Children in the Community.” Military Medicine 166 (12 Supplement 2): 49–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfefferbaum, Betty C., Gurwitch, Robin H., Mcdonald, Nicholas B., Michael, J. T. Leftwich, Sconzo, Guy M., Messenbaugh, Anne K., and Schultz, Rosemary A.. 2000. “Posttraumatic Stress among Young Children after the Death of a Friend or Acquaintance in a Terrorist Bombing.” Psychiatric Services 51 (3): 386–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfefferbaum, Betty C., Nixon, Sara Jo, Tivis, Rick D., Doughty, Debby E., Pynoos, Robert S., Gurwitch, Robin H., and Foy, David W.. 2001. “Television Exposure in Children after a Terrorist Incident.” Psychiatry 64 (3): 202–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramírez, Ricardo. 2013. Mobilizing Opportunities: State Contexts, Mobilization, and the Evolving Latino Electorate. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Schlenger, William E., Caddell, Juesta M., Lori Ebert, B. Kathleen Jordan, Rourke, Kathryn M., Wilson, David, Thalji, Lisa, et al. 2002. “Psychological Reactions to Terrorist Attacks: Findings from the National Study of Americans’ Reactions to September 11.” Journal of the American Medical Association 288 (5): 581–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuster, Mark A., Stein, Bradley D., Jaycox, Lisa H., Collins, Rebecca L., Marshall, Grant N., Elliott, Marc N., Zhou, Annie J., et al. 2001. “A National Survey of Stress Reactions after the September 11, 2001, Terrorist Attacks.” New England Journal of Medicine 345 (20): 1507–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Self-Brown, Shannon, Lai, Betty S., Thompson, Julia E., McGill, Tia, and Kelley, Mary Lou. 2013. “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Trajectories in Hurricane Katrina Affected Youth.” Journal of Affective Disorders 147 (1–3): 198–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silver, Roxane Cohen, Holman, E. Alison, McIntosh, Daniel N., Poulin, Michael, and Gil-Rivas, Virginia. 2002. “Nationwide Longitudinal Study of Psychological Responses to September 11.” Journal of the American Medical Association 288 (10): 1235–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sturm, Albert L. 1949. “Emergencies and the Presidency.” Journal of Politics 11 (1): 121–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sweeney, Kathryn A. 2006. “The Blame Game: Racialized Responses to Hurricane Katrina.” Du Bois Review 3 (1): 161–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tedeschi, Richard G., Shakespeare-Finch, Jane, Taku, Kanako, and Calhoun, Lawrence G.. 2018. Posttraumatic Growth: Theory, Research, and Applications. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van der Velden, Peter G., Grievink, Linda, Kleber, Rolf J., Drogendijk, Annelieke N., Roskam, Albert-Jan R., Frans, G. H. Marcelissen, Olff, Miranda, et al. 2006. “Post-Disaster Mental Health Problems and the Utilization of Mental Health Services: A Four-Year Longitudinal Comparative Study.” Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research 33 (3): 279–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vedlitz, Arnold, Alston, Jon P., and Pinkele, Carl. 1980. “Politics and the Black Church in a Southern Community.” Journal of Black Studies 10 (3): 367–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakefield, Jerome C. 2016. “Diagnostic Issues and Controversies in DSM-5: Return of the False Positives Problem.” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 12:105–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weathers, Frank W., and Keane, Terence M.. 2007. “The Criterion A Problem Revisited: Controversies and Challenges in Defining and Measuring Psychological Trauma.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 20 (2): 107–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, Ariel. 2016. “When Threat Mobilizes: Immigration Enforcement and Latino Voter Turnout.” Political Behavior 38:355–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williamson, Vanessa, Trump, Kris-Stella, and Einstein, Katherine Levine. 2018. “Black Lives Matter: Evidence that Police-Caused Deaths Predict Protest Activity.” Perspectives on Politics 16 (2): 400–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization. 2011. Estimated Total Deaths By Cause, Sex, and WHO Member State, 2008. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Marsh supplementary material

Marsh supplementary material

Download Marsh supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 610.4 KB
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.