INTRODUCTION
Misinformation about politics, social issues, and public health is a growing concern. Such content—defined by its potential to generate misperceptions about the true state of the world—encourages beliefs and behaviors that are potentially harmful for both individuals and societies at large (Kuklinski et al. Reference Kuklinski, Quirk, Jerit, Schwieder and Rich2000; Nyhan Reference Nyhan2020). Across the globe, the spread of misinformation on social media has been linked with citizens’ distrust in politics and unwillingness to comply with government policies (Argote et al. Reference Argote, Barham, Daly, Gerez, Marshall and Pocasangre2021; Berlinski et al. Reference Berlinski, Doyle, Guess, Levy, Lyons, Montgomery and Nyhan2023). By fueling ideological divides and increasing political polarization (Tucker et al. Reference Tucker, Guess, Barberá, Vaccari, Siegel, Sanovich and Stukal2018), exposure to misinformation may have contributed to events such as the 2020 Capitol Hill riots and Brexit. In the Global South, where citizens are especially reliant on closed platforms like WhatsApp for information (Pereira et al. Reference Pereira, Bueno, Nunes and Pavão2024), misinformation has been linked to lynchings and mass electoral mobilization in India and racial violence in South Africa (Allen Reference Allen2021; Badrinathan Reference Badrinathan2021).
Interventions to limit the potential impact of misinformation most frequently engage in debunking or prebunking (Blair et al. Reference Blair, Gottlieb, Nyhan, Paler, Argote and Stainfield2024). Debunking facilitates learning through retroactively correcting specific pieces of misinformation, often by explaining why it is false and providing an alternative explanation (Nyhan and Reifler Reference Nyhan and Reifler2015). Prebunking, which is closely connected to inoculation theory (Cook, Lewandowsky, and Ecker Reference Cook, Lewandowsky and Ecker2017), entails warning individuals about the threat of misinformation through examples and preemptively providing knowledge to help them identify and resist it. Both prebunking (e.g., Guess et al. Reference Guess, Lerner, Lyons, Montgomery, Nyhan, Reifler and Sircar2020; Pereira et al. Reference Pereira, Bueno, Nunes and Pavão2024; Roozenbeek and Van der Linden Reference Roozenbeek and Van der Linden2019) and debunking (e.g., Henry, Zhuravskaya, and Guriev Reference Henry, Zhuravskaya and Guriev2022; Nyhan et al. Reference Nyhan, Porter, Reifler and Wood2020; Wood and Porter Reference Wood and Porter2019) have been shown to increase skepticism of misinformation.
Sustained exposure to fact-checks—one popular method of combating misinformation—leverages complementarities between debunking and prebunking. Fact-checking most obviously debunks by informing citizens about particular false (and true) claims. But, more generally, repeated engagement with fact-checks should also prebunk by increasing general awareness of misinformation, explaining the logic behind common forms of misinformation, and demonstrating information verification strategies. As a result, fact-checking potentially limits the harmful consequences of misinformation both by shaping citizens’ discernment and verification of misinformation upon exposure and also by shaping media consumption choices, which affect the extent of exposure in the first place.
Despite these potential benefits, it is difficult to induce citizens to repeatedly consume fact-checks and internalize the lessons contained within them (Nyhan Reference Nyhan2020; Walter et al. Reference Walter, Cohen, Holbert and Morag2020). While fact-checked information can be effective when delivered in one-off forced consumption settings (e.g., Porter and Wood Reference Porter and Wood2021), sustained consumption outside of the lab or online surveys competes against attention-grabbing content on traditional media, the internet, and now social media (e.g., Prior Reference Prior2007). Furthermore, existing studies—which largely consist of testing single-shot efforts to combat misinformation—find that most effects attenuate significantly within a few weeks (Guess et al. Reference Guess, Lerner, Lyons, Montgomery, Nyhan, Reifler and Sircar2020; Nyhan Reference Nyhan2020; Porter and Wood Reference Porter and Wood2021). The short-lived nature of these effects highlights the challenge of internalization, even conditional on information consumption (Zaller Reference Zaller1992), and points to the need to assess if continued fact-checking shapes political dispositions and compliance with the state beyond attitudes and behaviors closely connected to debunked misinformation.
To understand the consequences of sustained engagement with fact-checks in the field, we implemented a six-month field experiment via WhatsApp in South Africa, where misinformation about social, political, and health issues is rife (Servick Reference Servick2015; Wasserman Reference Wasserman2020). We partnered with Africa Check, the first fact-checking organization serving sub-Saharan Africa, to expose citizens to professionally produced fact-checks. Once every two weeks for six months, Africa Check delivered three fact-checks via WhatsApp messages to treated participants in our large rolling sample of social media users. These fact-checks dissected mostly false stories pertaining to politics, health, and other high-profile topics that were trending on social media in South Africa in the preceding weeks. To measure baseline demand for—as well as encourage the consumption of—the fact-checks, we cross-randomized whether treated participants received quizzes with financial incentives to correctly answer questions about the fact-checks or placebo quizzes containing questions about unrelated content.Footnote 1
We further examine if, and how, citizens can be induced to engage with and internalize fact-checks by randomly varying how the fact-checks were disseminated to participants. Our four WhatsApp-based treatment conditions varied the appeal and cost of consuming the fact-checks as well as how empathetic the content was likely to be. First, imposing a low cost on consumers with competing time pressures, a simple text-based condition sent a single-sentence summary of each fact-check together with a weblink to additional information assessing each disputed claim. Second, the fact-checks were disseminated as a 6–8 minute podcast hosted by two narrators who fact-checked each claim and explained their verification process in a lively and conversational discussion that intended to generate engagement by making fact-checks entertaining.Footnote 2 Third, recognizing limits on time and attention span, we tested an abbreviated 4–6 minute podcast. Fourth, the full-length podcast was augmented with empathetic language emphasizing the narrators’ understanding of how fear and concern for loved ones might lead individuals to be fooled by misinformation. These treatments build on literature relating to the challenges of ensuring citizens’ attention to corrective information and news more generally (Baum Reference Baum2002; Marshall Reference Marshall2023; Prior Reference Prior2007), the effectiveness of “edutainment” in inducing behavioral change (Banerjee, La Ferrara, and Orozco-Olvera Reference Banerjee, La Ferrara and Orozco-Olvera2019; La Ferrara Reference La Ferrara2016), and the role of empathy in internalizing information (Gesser-Edelsburg et al. Reference Gesser-Edelsburg, Diamant, Hijazi and Mesch2018; Gottlieb, Adida, and Moussa Reference Gottlieb, Adida and Moussa2022; Kalla and Broockman Reference Kalla and Broockman2020).
The results from our panel survey establish three core findings. First, we find that interest in fact-checks is difficult—but not impossible—to generate. While some participants engaged with the fact-checks in the absence of incentives, relatively small financial incentives generated substantially greater engagement with fact-checks during the intervention. Furthermore, sustained exposure to fact-checks significantly increased demand for future fact-checks absent the provision of incentives. This suggests that the intervention activated latent demand for entertaining fact-checks, as prior work encouraging citizens’ access to novel news sources also finds (Chen and Yang Reference Chen and Yang2019). These findings highlight the importance of attracting consumers for fact-checks to be effective at combating misinformation at scale.
Second, we demonstrate that sustained exposure to fact-checks helps to inoculate citizens against misinformation. Receiving any incentivized form of treatment persistently increased respondents’ ability to discern truth from falsehood among a battery of political and public health stories we asked participants to assess, while increasing their skepticism towards prominent conspiracy theories—none of which were covered during the intervention. Importantly, greater discernment primarily reflected skepticism of false content, whereas confidence in true content was not systematically altered. Our results suggest that this may be driven by treated participants’ greater attention to online content, increased understanding of what credible content looks like, and reduced trust in social media. Nevertheless, the treatments did not impact the amount of news that participants consumed from social and traditional media—and thus did little to change their risk of being exposed to misinformation—or their verification behavior. These findings suggest that sustained exposure to fact-checks primarily combats misinformation by increasing attention and skepticism upon exposure to false content, rather than by altering the type of content individuals consume in the first place.
Third, comparisons across treatment conditions indicate that the mode of dissemination matters. With respect to engagement, we find that less can be more: the quickly-consumable WhatsApp text message consistently produced larger effects on discernment than the more involved long and short podcasts. Furthermore, the text treatment shifted attitudes and reported behaviors relating to COVID-19 and government performance away from positions that could be fueled by misinformation: citizens became more likely to report complying with COVID-19 preventative behaviors recommended by the government and more favorable toward the current South African government. Only the empathetic version of the podcast increased discernment as much as the simple text messages, which suggests that edutainment is more effective when it includes emotive appeals to increase the resonance of corrective information with consumers.
Our study adds to the growing body of work studying interventions to hinder misinformation in the Global South (cf. Ali and Qazi Reference Ali and Qazi2023; Badrinathan Reference Badrinathan2021; Gottlieb, Adida, and Moussa Reference Gottlieb, Adida and Moussa2022; Pereira et al. Reference Pereira, Bueno, Nunes and Pavão2024; Porter and Wood Reference Porter and Wood2021). A recent review of misinformation studies noted that more than 80% focused on contexts in the Global North, which “highlights the challenges of drawing conclusions about effective strategies for countering misinformation in the Global South” (Blair et al. Reference Blair, Gottlieb, Nyhan, Paler, Argote and Stainfield2024, 2). Our study’s findings thus help to validate the benefits of fact-checking—which, through sustained exposure, essentially becomes media literacy—in settings where consumers have variable media literacy levels and face high data costs when independently validating information they find on social media platforms.
Our unusually sustained intervention in the field, along with the richness of our experimental research design, mean that our findings advance broader understanding of misinformation, how to combat it, and its political consequences in three key ways. First, we demonstrate that sustained exposure to fact-checks can not only debunk the specific misinformation addressed in the fact-checks but also prebunk new misinformation. The importance of repeated engagement helps to make sense of the mixed evidence on whether single-shot interventions can effectively prebunk misinformation (Maertens et al. Reference Maertens, Roozenbeek, Basol and van der Linden2021; Pereira et al. Reference Pereira, Bueno, Nunes and Pavão2024; Roozenbeek and Van der Linden Reference Roozenbeek and Van der Linden2019; cf. Badrinathan Reference Badrinathan2021; Hameleers Reference Hameleers2022). We also contribute to this literature by showing that interventions which encourage sustained exposure in a natural media consumption environment can be effective when citizens are motivated to consume fact-checks. By further measuring a broad array of outcomes, we establish that the enduring effects of our sustained intervention are largely driven by increasing citizens’ capacity to discern content upon exposure, rather than by changing their media consumption habits. While the moderate effects we observe offer optimism for demand-side interventions, this finding simultaneously emphasizes the importance of complementary supply-side policies.
Second, our findings illuminate the theoretical mechanisms required for fact-checks to be effective at scale. In line with inventive studies seeking to “gamify” digital literacy lessons (Iyengar, Gupta, and Priya Reference Iyengar, Gupta and Priya2023; Maertens et al. Reference Maertens, Roozenbeek, Basol and van der Linden2021; Roozenbeek and Van der Linden Reference Roozenbeek and Van der Linden2019), we show that entertaining fact-checking podcasts can durably enhance citizens’ discernment, and are most effective when delivered empathetically—as a growing literature suggests (Gesser-Edelsburg et al. Reference Gesser-Edelsburg, Diamant, Hijazi and Mesch2018; Gottlieb, Adida, and Moussa Reference Gottlieb, Adida and Moussa2022; Kalla and Broockman Reference Kalla and Broockman2020; Williamson et al. Reference Williamson, Adida, Lo, Platas, Prather and Werfel2021). However, we also show that “edutainment” is not the only pathway for stimulating engagement with, and internalization of, fact-checks. Indeed, short text messages that summarized fact-checks were at least as effective. Given the difficulty of engaging citizens in today’s multi-platform media environment, interventions requiring little time commitment from citizens may be critical for conveying specific information and general lessons in the face of limited demand for fact-checks. This finding chimes with the importance of integrating brief accuracy nudges into social media platforms (e.g., Pennycook et al. Reference Pennycook, Epstein, Mosleh, Arechar, Eckles and Rand2021).
Third, this article addresses the important—but as yet understudied—question of whether misinformation shapes political attitudes and behaviors. While it is natural to believe that false beliefs might affect such outcomes, misinformed beliefs could instead reflect partisan cheerleading with limited political impact (Jerit and Zhao Reference Jerit and Zhao2020). By demonstrating that text messages regularly conveying fact-checks both increased faith in the incumbent government and reported compliance with its policies, we show that reducing susceptibility to misinformation can have durable political consequences. Our results thus corroborate the perception that modern polities should be concerned about misinformation’s potentially corrosive effects on state capacity and political accountability.
WHEN MIGHT FACT-CHECKING BE EFFECTIVE?
In much of the Global South, there are at least two important challenges to mitigating harmful exposure to misinformation. First, limited levels of digital literacy might amplify citizens’ susceptibility to misinformation upon exposure (Badrinathan Reference Badrinathan2021; Guess et al. Reference Guess, Lerner, Lyons, Montgomery, Nyhan, Reifler and Sircar2020; Offer-Westort, Rosenzweig, and Athey Reference Offer-Westort, Rosenzweig and Athey2024). Second, high data costs restrict citizens’ access to the broader internet and increase reliance on low-cost social media platforms such as WhatsApp (Bowles, Larreguy, and Liu Reference Bowles, Larreguy and Liu2020; Pereira et al. Reference Pereira, Bueno, Nunes and Pavão2024). While platforms such as Facebook and Twitter can fact-check misinformation or warn users about flagged posts (Clayton et al. Reference Clayton, Blair, Busam, Forstner, Glance, Green and Kawata2020), governments may lack the capacity or incentive to encourage such interventions by platforms and these options are not possible for encrypted platforms like WhatsApp. Consequently, both citizens’ overall exposure to misinformation, and the costs they face to verify it, are potentially high.
Research designed to mitigate the negative consequences of misinformation has predominantly focused on two types of interventions: corrective interventions (debunking) and preemptive interventions (prebunking). Corrective interventions, which debunk specific misconceptions and pieces of misinformation, are especially important for disproving prevalent or consequential claims of particular significance (Nyhan Reference Nyhan2020). Conversely, prebunking efforts seek to “inoculate” people against specific claims, but also misinformation in general, by warning them about misinformation’s existence and pre-emptively providing tools to identify and counteract it (Cook Reference Cook, Dillard and Shen2013; Martel, Pennycook, and Rand Reference Martel, Pennycook and Rand2020).
Fact-checking is commonly associated with debunking, but may—with sustained exposure—combine both debunking and prebunking. While fact-checking interventions provide corrections about specific pieces of misinformation, fact-checkers often also explain the general steps taken to establish their conclusions. These explanations can inform consumers about the broader threat of misinformation and where it is most commonly found, demonstrate how misinformation can be debunked using reliable sources and how fact-checking techniques work, and explain general forms of faulty logic underlying specific false claims. Even without directly undergoing media literacy education, individuals may thus experience observational learning through repeated exposure to such messaging (Bandura Reference Bandura2001; Tewksbury, Weaver, and Maddex Reference Tewksbury, Weaver and Maddex2001; Zukin and Snyder Reference Zukin and Snyder1984). Observational learning may even occur among individuals initially lacking motivation for active learning, where knowledge can still be acquired incidentally through passive consumption of information (Shehata et al. Reference Shehata, Hopmann, Nord and Höijer2015; Stroud, Scacco, and Kim Reference Stroud, Scacco and Kim2022). Fact-checking may therefore increase consumers’ general awareness about how to avoid or spot misinformation and engage in critical thinking or fact-checking themselves.
Sustained exposure to fact-checks may then combat misinformation in two main ways. First, it could reduce exposure to misinformation. When consumers receive fact-checks consistently, they may become aware of the prevalence of misinformation, leading them to become more selective about what they read. As fact-checks also educate people about which types of sources are legitimate information providers, they may start consuming more reputable sources.
Second, sustained exposure to fact-checks can reduce misinformation’s impact upon exposure by promoting internalization of the critical thinking skills they impart—which may require longer and more frequent exposure (Guess et al. Reference Guess, Lerner, Lyons, Montgomery, Nyhan, Reifler and Sircar2020; Tully, Vraga, and Bode Reference Tully, Vraga and Bode2020). Thus, even if overall exposure to misinformation is not affected, internalization of the lessons from fact-checks may nevertheless ensure that individuals become more attentive to, discerning of, or likely to verify misinformation they encounter on social media or elsewhere; ideally, they would also become more trusting of truthful information. Sustained exposure may further enhance users’ trust in fact-checking sources (Gentzkow, Wong, and Zhang Reference Gentzkow, Wong and ZhangForthcoming), which may in turn increase internalization (Alt, Marshall, and Lassen Reference Alt, Marshall and Lassen2016).
Although a number of studies experimentally demonstrate fact-checking’s promise (see Blair et al. Reference Blair, Gottlieb, Nyhan, Paler, Argote and Stainfield2024), these studies also have important limitations (Flynn, Nyhan, and Reifler Reference Flynn, Nyhan and Reifler2017; Walter et al. Reference Walter, Cohen, Holbert and Morag2020). First, existing work primarily relies on one-shot interventions, often forcing participants to consume fact-checks in lab or survey environments. Outside these settings, however, citizens allocate their time across a wide array of activities and rarely choose to consume fact-checks. Various studies show that political news may only appeal to unusually-engaged individuals (Prior Reference Prior2007) or when elections are upcoming (Marshall Reference Marshall2023), while relatively few people who visit untrustworthy websites get exposed to even one fact-check in the US (Guess, Brendan, and Reifler Reference Guess, Brendan and Reifler2020)—let alone in the Global South, where mobile data is expensive. Corrective and preemptive interventions that work in the lab may then be of limited use in combating misinformation in the field if they cannot regularly capture the public’s attention.
Second, consumption of fact-checks does not necessarily imply enduring internalization. Following Zaller (Reference Zaller1992), people may read fact-checks and recall their content, but still fail to accept—and thus internalize—the information they receive or quickly move it to the back of their mind without repeated exposure. Indeed, some studies find evidence of motivated reasoning in response to counter-attitudinal information (Peterson and Iyengar Reference Peterson and Iyengar2021; Taber and Lodge Reference Taber and Lodge2006). Furthermore, existing research has tended to find short-term success only in combating the specific pieces of misinformation that fact-checks targeted, while failing to affect consumers’ broader susceptibility or underlying attitudes or behaviors (Barrera et al. Reference Barrera, Guriev, Henry and Zhuravskaya2020; Carey et al. Reference Carey, Guess, Loewen, Merkley, Nyhan, Phillips and Reifler2022; Hopkins, Sides, and Citrin Reference Hopkins, Sides and Citrin2019). Via either mechanism, limited internalization restricts fact-checking’s potential benefits for media literacy.
Improving the Efficacy of Fact-Checks
Drawing from established theoretical frameworks, we consider how individuals might be encouraged to both consume and internalize fact-checks in the field.
Encouraging Engagement
Attracting consumers in a competitive media environment is likely to require reducing costs or increasing the benefits of consuming fact-checks. We first consider reducing the time cost of consumption. Competing against a flow of potentially more interesting or emotive content on social media and elsewhere, misinformation-correcting interventions that are quicker to digest for users might induce more consumption than interventions that take longer to ingest and understand. Given that internalization depends on initial consumption, easier-to-consume fact-checks may prove to be more effective at increasing audience reach and awareness. However, shorter interventions usually convey less information, so may have weaker effects on those exposed.
Another potential solution is to make fact-checking content more appealing. Following Bandura’s (Reference Bandura2001) application of social learning theory to mass media communication, using entertainment for educational objectives can promote attitudinal and behavioral change by increasing attention to favored behaviors, enhancing retention of modeled behaviors by making them more memorable, imparting the skills to reproduce their behaviors, and providing a strong motivation to carry out these behaviors. Prior research on “edutainment” shows that delivering information in entertaining and varied ways positively affects consumption, information recall, beliefs, and behaviors (e.g., Baum Reference Baum2002; Baum and Jamison Reference Baum and Jamison2006; Kim Reference Kim2023; La Ferrara Reference La Ferrara2016). For example, Banerjee, La Ferrara, and Orozco-Olvera (Reference Banerjee, La Ferrara and Orozco-Olvera2019) find that exposure to television programming helped to increase awareness of HIV and health behaviors in Nigeria. Furthermore, Iyengar, Gupta, and Priya (Reference Iyengar, Gupta and Priya2023), Maertens et al. (Reference Maertens, Roozenbeek, Basol and van der Linden2021), and Roozenbeek and Van der Linden (Reference Roozenbeek and Van der Linden2019) find that “gamified” media literacy training increased participants’ likelihood of discerning between true and false tweets. Administering fact-checking interventions in more engaging ways might enhance users’ demand for them.
Enhancing Internalization
The mode by which fact checks are delivered also has the potential to shape citizens’ internalization. Within the literature, there is little consensus on the most effective modes of fact-checking, both when considering the level of detail or tone of delivery needed to inhibit susceptibility to misinformation. With respect to detail, lengthier fact-checks might appear more credible (Chan et al. Reference Chan, Jones, Jamieson and Albarracín2017) and increase information retention (Lewandowsky et al. Reference Lewandowsky, Ullrich, Seifert, Schwarz and Cook2012); they also allow the fact-checking organization to provide more tips on how to spot, and verify, potential misinformation. Moreover, more detailed fact-checks may increase information retention and thereby boost media literacy (Lewandowsky et al. Reference Lewandowsky, Ullrich, Seifert, Schwarz and Cook2012). On the other hand, shorter messages may be less taxing on readers’ attention, leading to greater engagement and, in turn, greater internalization (Pennycook et al. Reference Pennycook, Epstein, Mosleh, Arechar, Eckles and Rand2021). By reducing nuance, shorter and simpler interventions’ concise takeaways might increase consumers’ acceptance and recall of the fact-checked information (Walter et al. Reference Walter, Cohen, Holbert and Morag2020).
Considering the tone of delivery, prior work points to the potential role of empathy in promoting internalization. An expanding body of work highlights the role of emotions in increasing susceptibility to misinformation (Martel, Pennycook, and Rand Reference Martel, Pennycook and Rand2020). Thus, interventions that promote emotional engagement and empathy could induce sustained internalization (Gesser-Edelsburg et al. Reference Gesser-Edelsburg, Diamant, Hijazi and Mesch2018). More generally, Kalla and Broockman (Reference Kalla and Broockman2020) show that empathetic narratives durably decreased out-group exclusion, while Williamson et al. (Reference Williamson, Adida, Lo, Platas, Prather and Werfel2021) find that shared experiences, which induce empathy, increased support for immigrants.
However, the role of tone remains contested in the context of fact-checking. Bode, Vraga, and Tully (Reference Bode, Vraga and Tully2020) find no improvement using either uncivil or affirmational tones in comparison to neutral-toned misinformation corrections. Martel, Mosleh, and Rand (Reference Martel, Mosleh and Rand2021) similarly find no impacts of polite corrective messages on the likelihood of engagement on social media or internalization of the misinformation correction. Since the inclusion of empathetic narratives is likely to increase the length of the fact-checks, trading detail for tone of delivery could reduce the effectiveness of empathetic fact-checks.
Hypotheses
Together, we anticipate that sustained exposure to fact-checking ought to combine aspects of both debunking and prebunking for misinformation correction. We next summarize our hypotheses, which were registered in our pre-analysis plan and are enumerated alongside a preview of our findings in Table 1.
Table 1. Preregistered Hypotheses and Findings
Note: We merged hypotheses H2 and H3 in our pre-analysis plan into a combined H3; Figure E3a,b in the Supplementary Material report similar results separately. Due to merging these hypotheses and the order that results are presented, H2, H4, H5, H6, and H7 correspond to H5, H6, H4, H7, and H9 in our pre-analysis plan.
Our hypotheses relate to four main groups of outcomes: engagement with fact-checks, discernment of content on social media, engagement with content on social media, and the political consequences of any changes in how individuals engage with the content they encounter. First, hypothesis H1 expected that easing access to fact-checks would increase exposure to, and knowledge of, the facts that were covered by the treatment deliveries. In a media environment with many available options, ensuring engagement with such content is not a given and may require further incentives. Second, we hypothesized that sustained exposure to corrective information would inoculate individuals against misinformation by making them more attentive to the veracity of the content they encounter (H2), more aware of misinformation on social media and less trusting of social media content (H3), and ultimately better able to discern false from true information (H4). Third, in addition to altering how citizens respond to content upon exposure, we further anticipated that repeated exposure to fact-checks would cause individuals to consume and share less content from social media (H5) and more actively use verification techniques (H6). Finally, to the extent that misinformation typically focuses on salient false claims about politics or public policy, sustained exposure to fact-checks might then increase compliance with government policies (H7) and improve perceptions of government performance (H8).
Beyond the effects of sustained exposure to fact-checks in general, understanding how to effectively increase organic consumption and internalization is more theoretically ambiguous. Indeed, simpler interventions might promote consumption while undermining the broader benefits from internalization, while more engaging modes enhance internalization but require more costly consumption decisions by citizens. Our pre-specified expectation relating to this trade-off was that interventions leveraging “edutainment” or more empathetic content would be more effective at enhancing internalization at the potential cost of lower engagement. As such, we expected that delivery through an entertaining podcast would be more effective than a text message with the same information, and an empathetic podcast even more so.
MISINFORMATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
Misinformation has been a growing concern in South Africa in recent years, particularly in the context of political and social issues (Posetti, Simon, and Shabbir Reference Posetti, Simon and Shabbir2021). In July 2021, for example, national unrest sparked by former president Jacob Zuma’s arrest resulted in widespread fake images and posts of destruction and racialized killings appearing on social media, which further exacerbated inter-community tensions, violence, and looting (Allen Reference Allen2021). During elections, false rumors and conspiracy theories about politicians and political parties have been disseminated to influence voters and to worsen social divisions (International Federation of Journalists 2019). Misinformation has targeted women as frequent subjects, particularly journalists and politicians (Agunwa and Alalade Reference Agunwa and Alalade2022; Wasserman Reference Wasserman2020), and has also worsened xenophobic violence in the country (Somdyala Reference Somdyala2019).
Since the pandemic’s onset in 2020, health misinformation has also increased dramatically. Prominent false claims included COVID-19 not affecting Black Africans, 5G technologies being responsible for the virus, vaccines implanting microchips for government surveillance, and the efficacy of various home remedies and miracle cures (Africa Check 2023). Such pandemic-related misinformation capitalized on citizens’ distrust of information provided by their government and perceived political elites (Steenberg et al. Reference Steenberg, Myburgh, Sokani, Ngwenya, Mutevedzi and Madhi2022). Moreover, misinformation widened health inequality and compliance with government policies; vaccine hesitancy was highest among the most segregated and marginalized communities (Steenberg et al. Reference Steenberg, Myburgh, Sokani, Ngwenya, Mutevedzi and Madhi2022).
The widespread use of mobile phones and social media platforms like Facebook and WhatsApp in South Africa has fueled the proliferation of misinformation. WhatsApp is a popular choice of communication and news consumption for South African internet users due to its affordability in a country with high data usage costs. In 2021, 88% of South Africans used WhatsApp, and 52% of South Africans used WhatsApp to access news (Newman et al. Reference Newman, Fletcher, Schulz, Andı, Robertson and Nielsen2021). However, WhatsApp has also become a breeding ground for misinformation, and its negative impacts worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic (Kazeem Reference Kazeem2020).
To combat misinformation, civil society organizations have developed fact-checking tools and initiatives to verify the accuracy of the information circulating on social media. Africa Check is a prominent example: since its founding in 2012, the South African nonprofit has focused its efforts on verifying claims made by public figures and popular content that appears online or on social media. Since 2019, Africa Check has partnered with the podcasting firm Volume to produce a biweekly podcast—entitled “What’s Crap on WhatsApp?”—which debunks three locally viral pieces of misinformation each episode in an engaging investigative style. As podcast consumption in South Africa is fast-growing, Africa Check’s misinformation podcast seeks to capture a broader audience through an accessible audio format.
RESEARCH DESIGN
To understand the constraints on consumption and internalization that potentially limit fact-checking’s effectiveness, we implemented a six-month field experiment that varied participants’ access to different forms of Africa Check’s fact-check programming.Footnote 3 During the study period, Figure 1 shows that most fact-checks related to (usually false) claims about politics, health issues, and broader social issues. Political fact-checks tended to debunk incendiary claims relating to government corruption or incompetence; health fact-checks often focused on debunking myths and false cures related to COVID-19 and other health conditions (such as diabetes, high blood pressure, or HIV) as well as the adoption of new technologies purportedly harmful to health.
Each fact-check summarized the claim being examined before then explaining Africa Check’s process for verifying the claim (which typically involved investigating its source, cross-checking, and consulting experts) and ultimately concluding whether the claim was true or false. Our study evaluates whether sustained exposure to such fact-checks—and how the fact-checks are conveyed—helps individuals to become more discerning of the content they consume in general, changes what information they consume and what they do with it, and ultimately affects citizens’ attitudes and behaviors.
Figure 1. Biweekly Fact-Checked Content
Note: Fact-check categories in (a) were coded independently by an undergraduate research assistant. Examples of fact-checks within each category are provided in Section B.1 of the Supplementary Material. Accuracy categories in (b) are provided by Africa Check’s fact-checking.
Participant Recruitment
Following a brief pilot, the research team recruited participants from social media for the study from across South Africa between October 2020 and September 2021.Footnote 4 Facebook advertisements were used to recruit adult Facebook users in 21 “batches” on a rolling basis (typically once every two weeks) for a research study on misinformation in South Africa.Footnote 5 Individuals were eligible to participate if they were at least 18 years old, lived in South Africa at the time of recruitment, had a South African phone number, understood English, and used WhatsApp. We restricted our recruitment to social media users due both to their higher anticipated exposure to misinformation as well as the relative feasibility of collecting survey responses (any in-person enumeration would have been challenging due to the COVID-19 pandemic).
Eligible participants then completed a baseline survey administered by the research team via a WhatsApp chatbot (see Figure C1b in the Supplementary Material). The baseline survey recorded participants’ demographic characteristics, attitudes regarding misinformation, knowledge about misinformation and current affairs, trust and consumption of different information sources, information verification and sharing behavior, and COVID-19 knowledge and preventative behavior. 11,672 individuals completed the baseline survey and 8,947 satisfied the conditions necessary to enroll in the study.Footnote 6
This pool of participants was 28 years old on average, and mostly urban (76%), female (61%), and educated (89% report receiving secondary education). Figure C2 in the Supplementary Material compares this sample with nationally representative data from 2018 round of the Afrobarometer survey. While this sample is systematically different from the overall broader population, it is similar in terms of observables to the relevant Afrobarometer subgroup who report ever using social media, with only modest differences in age, gender, and education observed.
Treatment Assignment and Delivery
Participants were randomly assigned to either a control group that received no fact-checks or one of four treatment conditions that varied how fact-checks were conveyed. Africa Check delivered these treatments through separate WhatsApp lists created specifically for this intervention, and all treated participants received the same three fact-checks via WhatsApp once every two weeks for six months.Footnote 7 Figure 2 provides an example of how the text and three versions of the podcast differed in their presentation of a single fact-check. Table B1 in the Supplementary Material provides additional examples of specific fact-checks, along with examples of wording for the treatment variants.
Figure 2. Example of a Single Fact-Check for Each Treatment Arm
Fact-Check Treatment Variants
We first varied whether the fact-checks were disseminated through a short text message or a podcast. The Text condition simply provided a one-sentence summary of each fact-check, together with a clickable link to an article on Africa Check’s website assessing the disputed claim. These messages enabled consumers to quickly learn the veracity of viral online claims without reading the articles, and also to access articles for each of the claims separately.
The three podcast conditions delivered the fact-checks in a more entertaining but longer-form way. In each variant, two narrators explained the veracity of each claim and how they verified the claims in a lively and conversational tone.Footnote 8 Among those receiving podcasts, we further varied how costly or empathetic the content was. The default Long podcast—which Africa Check disseminates to its regular subscribers—generally lasted 6–8 minutes, while the Short podcast cut some discussion of how the claims were verified to reduce the podcast to 4–6 minutes in length. The Empathetic podcast augmented the Long podcast with empathetic language emphasizing the narrators’ understanding of how fear and concern about family and friends might lead individuals to be fooled by misinformation; Section B.3 of the Supplementary Material provides examples of empathetic additions.
Once assigned, treated participants were informed about the mode of dissemination for their fact-checks. 7,331 participants saw their treatment assignment; the residual 1,615, which was balanced across treatment arms, selected out of continued engagement with the study after completing the baseline survey. Treatment was then delivered via Africa Checks’ WhatsApp account every fortnight for six months to treated participants, while control participants received no further information from Africa Check.
Incentives to Consume Fact-Checks
To understand organic demand for fact-checks and stimulate engagement among participants lacking interest, we further varied the provision of financial incentives for treated participants to consume Africa Check’s fact-checks. Specifically, a randomly selected 83% of treated participants received short monthly quizzes covering recent fact-checks (fact-check quizzes). All control participants and the remaining treated participants received quizzes asking about popular culture (placebo quizzes). Regardless of quiz type, participants knew in advance that they would receive greater payment for completing these optional monthly quizzes if they answered a majority of quiz questions correctly; see Section A.4 of the Supplementary Material for details. Figure C3 in the Supplementary Material shows that participants who received their treatment regularly took these interim quizzes, with similar rates of quiz participation across treatment arms.
These quizzes were administered by the research team through a different WhatsApp account from the Africa Check account used for treatment delivery. To minimize the risk that the fact-check quizzes would treat participants directly, we did not provide participants with the correct answers or tell them which questions they answered correctly. In line with prior studies adopting similar designs (e.g., Chen and Yang Reference Chen and Yang2019), the quizzes should therefore be construed as generating variation in participants’ instrumental incentives to engage with their treatments without constituting an independent source of information in their own right.
Summary of Interventions
Figure 3 summarizes the overall research design, noting the share of participants assigned to control and each treatment arm as well as the share cross-randomized to fact-check versus placebo quizzes. For each recruitment batch, treatment conditions were randomly assigned within blocks of individuals with similar demographics, social media consumption patterns, trust towards different news sources, and misinformation knowledge.Footnote 9 Section A.5 of the Supplementary Material provides a discussion of ethical considerations and risks of study participation, which we considered to be minimal.
Figure 3. Overview of Treatment Assignments
Note: The main treatment arms include a pure Control, a Text-only treatment, a Short (4-6 min) podcast, a Long (6-8 min) podcast, and an Empathetic variant of the long podcast. Participants were additionally incentivized to consume particular content through optional monthly quizzes, relating either to the treatment information (Fact-check quizzes) or pop culture (Placebo quizzes).
Outcome Measurement
After six months, each participant completed an endline survey administered by the research team. Those participants who reached the endline (
$ n=4,543 $
) were highly engaged, taking an average of 88% of the monthly quizzes.Footnote
10 To uniformly measure fact-check consumption and internalization, we embedded a final quiz relating to Africa Check’s recent fact-checks in the endline survey, even if participants had been assigned to placebo quiz incentives during the treatment period. Along with other measures of treatment engagement and internalization, the endline survey measured our primary outcomes: trust in media, attention to content, and discernment of content truth; information consumption, verification, and sharing behaviors; and attitudes and behaviors relating to COVID-19 and politics. Our main analyses aggregate indicators within each of these groups into inverse covariance weighted (ICW) indexes to limit the number of outcomes considered and increase statistical power (Anderson Reference Anderson2008). Table 2 describes each index component, provides summary statistics, and notes the figures in which each outcome is presented. Section A.6 of the Supplementary Material explains how we deal with missing data and justifies some differences from our pre-specified outcome measures.Footnote
11
Table 2. Outcome Variables
Note: These descriptive statistics underlie all survey variables used in results and figures presented in Section “Results.” The final column represents the full (integer) range of value options in our survey for each question. Variables followed by [−] indicate that variable has been reversed for use in index before providing summary statistics.
Estimation
We estimate intent-to-treat (ITT) effects of different combinations of treatment arms relative to our control group. Specifically, we estimate the following pre-specified OLS regressions:
$$ \begin{array}{rl}{Y}_{ib}={\alpha}_b+\beta {Y}_{ib}^{pre}+\boldsymbol{\gamma} {\mathrm{X}}_{ib}^{pre}+\boldsymbol{\tau} {\mathrm{T}}_{ib}+{\varepsilon}_{ib},& \end{array} $$
where
$ {Y}_{ib} $
is an outcome for respondent i from block b,
$ {\mathrm{T}}_{ib} $
is the vector of individual treatment assignments,
$ {\alpha}_b $
are randomization block fixed effects,
$ {Y}_{ib}^{pre} $
is the baseline analog of the outcome (where feasible), and
$ {\mathrm{X}}_{ib}^{pre} $
is a vector of predetermined baseline covariates selected separately for each outcome variable via cross-validated LASSO. The vector
$ \boldsymbol{\tau} $
captures the ITT effect of each treatment condition. Reflecting the individual-level randomization, robust standard errors are used throughout.
We focus on two pre-specified approaches to combining treatment conditions: (i) a pooled specification, where we pool all text and podcast fact-check conditions; and (ii) a disaggregated specification, where we examine the Text, Short podcast, Long podcast, and Empathetic podcast conditions separately. The principal deviation from our preregistered specifications is our decision to pool the treated participants that received placebo quiz incentives into a single group (Placebo incentives).Footnote 12 For inference, we use one-sided t tests to evaluate hypotheses where we pre-specified a directional hypothesis in Table 2. Otherwise, or in cases where the pre-specified direction is the opposite of the estimated treatment effect, we use two-sided t tests.Footnote 13
We estimate intent-to-treat effects, rather than the local average treatment effects of consuming fact-checks, for several reasons. First, we consider this to be the quantity of theoretical and policy relevance. Our theoretical framework considers potential trade-offs in how fact-checking interventions might shape participants’ consumption of corrective information and their impacts conditional on consumption. Because we cannot force consumption outside of the lab, understanding the net effect of such interventions—while parsing potential differences in uptake—is then the relevant quantity for policy as well. Second, our treatment conditions could affect relevant outcomes through causal pathways that extend beyond just consumption of fact-checks, rendering the exclusion restriction difficult to defend in an instrumental variable analysis. Third, we lack a measure of uptake that does not rely on participants’ self-reported consumption of Africa Check’s fact-checks.Footnote 14
Finally, we validate the research design in several ways.Footnote 15 First, we find no evidence of differential attrition across treatment arms. Table C1 in the Supplementary Material shows balance in the probability of completing the endline survey over treatment conditions.Footnote 16 Second, treatment conditions are well balanced across baseline survey covariates in the endline sample.Footnote 17 As Table C2 in the Supplementary Material shows, a joint F-test only fails to reject the null hypothesis that the mean of all characteristics are equal to zero at the 10% significance level. Third, we assess the possible concern that demand effects drive our main effects in Section A.7 of the Supplementary Material. As discussed there, we focus on factual outcomes less susceptible to survey response biases, consider such biases to be unlikely to account for differences between treatment groups, and find it improbable that biases would affect only the subset of outcome families where we find consistent treatment effects.
RESULTS
We focus on four sets of outcomes. First, we assess how treatment assignment shaped participants’ attention to, and consumption of, the fact-checks. Second, we consider whether our sustained intervention improved participants’ capacity to discern true and false information not covered by the fact-checks. Third, to understand the extent to which individuals reduced their exposure to misinformation, we examine participants’ broader media consumption behaviors. Fourth, in line with the fact-checks’ topical focus, we evaluate broader impacts on participants’ attitudes towards the government and their COVID-19 beliefs and behaviors.
We present results from both the pooled treatment specification and the disaggregated treatment specification. Given our use of ICW indexes to aggregate similar outcome variables, treatment effect estimates reflect standard deviation changes relative to the control group. Our graphical results plot 90% and 95% confidence intervals in each figure; the lower panels provide p-values from tests of differences in effect size between particular treatment arms. Tables F1–F13 in the Supplementary Material report the regression estimates underlying our figures as well as unstandardized estimates for each index component.
Consumption of Fact-Checks
In line with hypothesis H1, we find substantial and sustained levels of fact-check consumption in Figure 4. The upper panel of Figure 4a demonstrates that podcast listenership increased by 0.65 standard deviations across pooled podcast treatment conditions (
$ p<0.01 $
). For our most direct metric of intervention take-up, Table F1 in the Supplementary Material shows that participants assigned to podcasts became 36 percentage points more likely to report listening to the WCW podcast relative to the control group (or participants assigned to text messages) by endline. With respect to text consumption, only around 11% individual webpage links sent as part of the biweekly text messages were clicked by study participants, although the fact-check’s conclusion was always conveyed in the WhatsApp message itself.Footnote
18
Figure 4. Treatment Effects on Take-Up
Note: All outcomes are standardized ICW indexes (see items in Table 2). Top panels within each subfigure provide pooled estimates of treatment effects; bottom panels provide estimates with disaggregated treatment variants. Estimated using Equation 1. Top panel excludes Text from Pooled treatment since they were not sent podcasts; p-values are from pre-registered tests of differences between treatment variants indicated in bottom panels, while the interior and exterior bars represent 90% and 95% confidence intervals. Tables F1–F3 in the Supplementary Material report regression results for each index and its components; Tables F14 and F15 in the Supplementary Material further include LASSO-selected covariates.
To capture the extent to which participants paid attention to their assigned treatments, and address the concern that treated respondents over-reported their consumption of the podcast, we consider two behavioral measures of engagement. First, consistent with the debunking aspect of the intervention, Figure 4b demonstrates that the average treated respondent receiving fact-check quiz incentives increased the number of questions about Africa Check’s recent fact-checks that they answered correctly on the endline survey by 0.41 standard deviations (
$ p<0.01 $
). This increased the probability of answering such a question correctly from 0.4 to 0.5.
Second, to measure intent to engage with the fact-checks once the modest incentives were removed, we asked participants whether they wished to receive fact-checks, reminders to pay attention to fake news, or COVID-19 vaccine information from Africa Check after the six months of financial incentives concluded. The results in Figure 4c show that treated respondents with incentives to consume fact-checks became 0.21 standard deviations more likely to subscribe to Africa Check’s content (
$ p<0.01 $
). Table F3 in the Supplementary Material disaggregates the index to show that the probability of treated respondents signing up to receive the WCW podcast after the intervention increased by 14 percentage points from 75%.
However, indicative of the challenges of generating organic demand for corrective information, the treatments that came with placebo quiz incentives resulted in significantly smaller increases in self-reported engagement, knowledge of fact-checks, and intended future take-up. Our results mirror prior findings suggesting that financial incentives can play a key role in activating latent demand for politically salient information (Chen and Yang Reference Chen and Yang2019). An important challenge for fact-checkers is thus to generate appeal at scale. Our finding that financial incentives generated persisting demand suggests that doing so is possible if initial interest can be ignited. Nevertheless, the limited effects on treatment take-up among participants assigned to placebo incentives leads us to henceforth focus on those treated respondents assigned to fact-check quiz incentives, who engaged far more intensively with their assigned treatments.
The lower panel within each subfigure indicates that treatment take-up was fairly uniform across different treatment conditions where participants were assigned to fact-check quiz incentives. We detect no differences between the long, short, and empathetic podcast conditions in self-reported podcast listening in Figure 4a or between these conditions and the text condition in intended future take-up in Figure 4c. We do find that participants assigned to the empathetic condition were somewhat more accurate in answering questions about recent fact-checks at endline than the other treatment conditions. Rather than differences in engagement, this could reflect empathetic content increasing users’ information internalization. Overall, any differences in subsequent effects across treatment variants, conditional on the assignment of fact-check quiz incentives, are thus unlikely to reflect differential take-up and consumption rates.
Discerning Fact from Fiction
Having demonstrated significant engagement with the fact-checks, we next turn to the broader consequences of treatment. We first show that sustained exposure to fact-checks increased treated respondents’ ability to discern between true and false content upon exposure. In line with established approaches to measuring discernment (see Guay et al. Reference Guay, Berinsky, Pennycook and Rand2023; Pennycook and Rand Reference Pennycook and Rand2021), we showed respondents two true and two fake news stories relating to COVID-19 and government policy decisions, which were not covered by any Africa Check fact-check during the study period. We asked respondents to indicate how likely they believed each to be true on a five-point scale ranging from not at all likely to very likely. We then reverse-coded false questions and produced an ICW index measuring respondents’ discernment between true and false. Figure 5a’s upper panel shows that any treatment with fact-check quiz incentives increased respondents’ discernment between true and false information at endline relative to the control group by 0.06 standard deviations (
$ p<0.05 $
); consistent with their limited consumption of the fact-checks, respondents who received placebo quizzes showed little improvement in misinformation discernment relative to the control group. Figure D1 in the Supplementary Material further shows that improved discernment is driven by respondents’ greater distrust of false statements rather than their greater trust of true statements, which suggests that treatment did not simply make people more skeptical of everything they see. As the treatment variant tests in the lower panel illustrate, the pooled treatment effect is driven by the text message and empathetic podcast conditions.
Figure 5. Treatment Effects on (a) Discernment between Fake and True News and (b) Skepticism of Conspiracy Theories
Note: All outcomes are standardized ICW indexes (see items in Table 2). Top panels within each subfigure provide pooled estimates of treatment effects; bottom panels provide estimates with disaggregated treatment variants. Estimated using Equation 1; p-values are from pre-registered tests of differences between treatment variants indicated in bottom panels, while the interior and exterior bars represent 90% and 95% confidence intervals. Tables F4 and F5 in the Supplementary Material report regression results for each index and its components; Tables F14 and F15 in the Supplementary Material further include LASSO-selected covariates.
Second, we presented participants with four widespread conspiracy theories not investigated by Africa Check (listed in Table 2) and similarly asked respondents to indicate how likely each is to be true. In contrast with the discernment measures above, these outcomes—which were not preregistered because they were less directly related to our treatments—capture skepticism of well-known falsehoods that participants are likely to have encountered in real life (Pennycook and Rand Reference Pennycook and Rand2020). All responses are reverse-coded such that higher values indicate greater skepticism of the conspiracy theories’ likelihood of being true. The upper panel of Figure 5 indicates that pooling treatments with incentives to consume the fact-check quiz increased respondents’ skepticism of these conspiracy theories by 0.11 standard deviations, or an average of 0.12 units on our five-point scale (
$ p<0.01 $
). Increased skepticism is driven by the text message and the long and empathetic podcast formats (
$ p<0.05 $
,
$ p<0.05 $
, and
$ p<0.01 $
), which all produced larger effects than the short podcast.
Across participants’ ability to discern false from true stories and increased skepticism of conspiracy theories, sustained exposure to fact-checks reduced participants’ susceptibility to fake news beyond the fact-checks’ narrow content. Supporting hypothesis H4, this suggests that repeated exposure to fact-checks can help to inoculate individuals against misinformation more broadly.
We next consider whether such generalized discernment and skepticism is driven by the broader lessons imparted by Africa Check’s fact-checking practices. Suggesting that prebunking is an important component of fact-checks, the upper panel of Figure 6a shows that repeated exposure to fact-checks led respondents to score 0.10 standard deviations higher on our information verification knowledge index (
$ p<0.01 $
), which aggregates 13 items capturing good and bad practices for verifying news. Table F6 in the Supplementary Material disaggregates the index, showing that this effect principally reflects respondents’ greater awareness that they can avoid misinformation by relying on reputable sources or consulting fact-checking institutions and cannot effectively verify information simply by asking others. Similar to our discernment outcomes, the lower panel of Figure 6a shows that the text messages and short and empathetic podcast modes of delivery were notably more effective (
$ p<0.01 $
,
$ p<0.01 $
, and
$ p<0.05 $
, respectively) than the standard long podcast.
Figure 6. Treatment Effects on News Verification Knowledge, Attention to Veracity of Social Media Content, and Attitudes toward Social Media
Note: All outcomes are standardized ICW indexes (see items in Table 2). Top panels within each subfigure provide pooled estimates of treatment effects; bottom panels provide estimates with disaggregated treatment variants. Estimated using Equation 1; p-values are from pre-registered tests of differences between treatment variants indicated in bottom panels, while the interior and exterior bars represent 90% and 95% confidence intervals. Tables F6–F8 in the Supplementary Material report regression results for each index and its components; Tables F14 and F15 in the Supplementary Material further include LASSO-selected covariates.
In line with hypothesis H2, these lessons appear to translate into increased attention to the veracity of content on social media. Figure 6b examines an index combining three items: whether respondents listed paying close attention to sources as one of the best ways to avoid being misled by fake news on social media; how important respondents said it is to verify information received on social media; and how frequently they reported paying close attention to content received on social media platforms. The results show a 0.06 standard deviation increase in these measures of perceived importance of paying attention and self-reported attention (
$ p<0.05 $
). This effect is driven, primarily, by respondents becoming 3 percentage points more likely to report that paying close attention to the source of social media content ensures they are not misled by fake news (
$ p<0.05 $
). Comparing across treatment arms, respondents’ greater willingness to look twice at content encountered on social media is driven primarily by the empathetic podcast.
Effective inoculation might also reflect greater caution regarding platforms that supply a significant share of misinformation, as predicted by hypothesis H3. Aggregating respondents’ assessments of the truthfulness of content on social media platforms with the extent of their trust in such content (other than WhatsApp, through which our fact-checks were delivered), the upper panel of Figure 6c shows that the treatments incentivizing participants to consume fact-checks reduced trust in social media platforms by 0.08 standard deviations (
$ p<0.01 $
).Footnote
19 The effect is driven by each component of the index; for example, treatment reduced the share of respondents believing that social media information sources are credible by 15% (
$ p<0.01 $
) and reduced the extent to which content on social media is believed to be true by 0.04 standard deviations (
$ p<0.05 $
). In line with our previous results, the lower panel shows the largest effects for the text message and empathetic podcast delivery formats (
$ p<0.01 $
and
$ p<0.05 $
, respectively).
Nevertheless, the intervention did not entirely reshape participants’ engagement with their information environment. Despite becoming more knowledgeable about verification methods, Figure D2 in the Supplementary Material reports no effect on participants’ perceptions about the ease of fact-checking. We also find that beliefs about online sources of information did not carry over to traditional media sources. Figure E4a in the Supplementary Material reports no significant reduction in participants’ trust in radio or television news, which tend to be more legitimate sources of information.
Together, these results indicate that sustained access to fact-checks—especially when expressed in a simple text form or conversationally with empathy—increased respondents’ capacity to verify suspicious information, generally doubt content on social media upon exposure, and ultimately discern misinformation. Further, the heterogeneity across treatment groups, which all received fact-check quiz incentives and experienced similar effects on fact-check consumption, suggests that how fact-checked content was conveyed—rather than differential consumption or the quizzes themselves—was responsible for the generally larger effects of the short text messages and more empathetic podcasts.
Information Consumption, Verification, and Sharing
Moving beyond efforts to inoculate participants upon exposure to misinformation, hypothesis H5 assesses whether sustained exposure to fact-checks altered the extent of participants’ exposure to and engagement with misinformation in the first place. We first examine treatment effects on a self-reported index of the regularity with which respondents use social media to obtain news (again excluding WhatsApp, through which treatments were delivered). Across our pooled and disaggregated estimations, Figure 7a reports substantively small and consistently statistically insignificant treatment effects (
$ p=0.40 $
). Furthermore, Figure E5 in the Supplementary Material shows that consumption of news from traditional media and close personal ties were also unaffected. Thus, while individuals learned to scrutinize suspect claims and became less trusting of content on social media, the intervention did not shift where individuals got their news in the first place. Given that social media platforms are consumed for many purposes beyond acquiring news, this illustrates the supply-side challenge of limiting misinformation exposure.
Figure 7. Treatment Effects on Social Media Consumption, Verification, and Sharing
Note: All outcomes are standardized ICW indexes (see items in Table 2). Top panels within each subfigure provide pooled estimates of treatment effects; bottom panels provide estimates with disaggregated treatment variants. Estimated using Equation 1; p-values are from pre-registered tests of differences between treatment variants indicated in bottom panels, while the interior and exterior bars represent 90% and 95% confidence intervals. Tables F9–F11 in the Supplementary Material report regression results for each index and its components; Tables F14 and F15 in the Supplementary Material further include LASSO-selected covariates.
We similarly observe limited effects on respondents’ active efforts to verify the truth of claims encountered outside the study. Failing to reject the null hypothesis for H6, Figure 7a reports no significant increase in how often respondents reported trying to actively verify information they received through social media on a five-point scale from never to always (
$ p=0.28 $
). Figure D3 in the Supplementary Material indicates that, while verification efforts through Africa Check did increase, verification through traditional media was crowded out for all treated participants (
$ p<0.01 $
) and verification via online and social media was crowded out for respondents who were sent fact-checks by text (
$ p<0.01 $
). Along with the increase in verification knowledge observed in Figure 7b, these negligible treatment effects on respondents’ verification behavior imply that limited capacity to verify news stories might not be the only driver of citizens’ limited efforts to do so.
While sustained exposure to fact-checks did not affect costly decisions to alter media consumption patterns or actively verify information, greater discernment upon exposure to potential misinformation did translate—for participants that received fact-checks via Text or the Empathetic podcast—into a reduced propensity to share suspected misinformation. Providing some support for hypothesis H5 with respect to sharing, the lower panel of Figure 7c shows that these participants became around 0.11 standard deviations less likely to report sharing content received via social media (
$ p<0.05 $
), or a 0.1 unit reduction on our five-point scale capturing the frequency with which respondents shared news stories they encounter on social media with others. Thus, in addition to becoming more discerning, sustained treatment may limit viral misinformation outbreaks by making individuals more conscientious about the risks of sharing misinformation once exposed.
Attitudes and Behaviors Relating to COVID-19 and Government
We finally turn to hypotheses H7 and H8, which assess the political consequences of sustained exposure to fact-checks. A significant share of viral misinformation during the study period related to the COVID-19 pandemic, government officials and policies, and politically salient social issues. By emphasizing false cures or casting doubt on the severity of the pandemic, health-related misinformation risked reducing citizens’ compliance with preventative behaviors; exposure to politics-related misinformation would potentially further reduce citizens’ trust in formal political institutions. Corresponding fact-checks generally then corrected false claims about COVID-19 and often portrayed incumbent politicians’ performance in a more favorable light by casting doubt on outlandish falsehoods.
For our final set of outcomes, we measure effects on indexes of attitudes and self-reported behaviors relating to COVID-19 and politics to assess whether the treatment mitigated the negative downstream consequences typically associated with exposure to misinformation. Since these outcomes are not connected directly to the fact-checks, this enables us to test whether sustained efforts to combat salient misinformation influenced participants’ perspectives on public health and politics more broadly.
Overall, we detect modest but some significant effects after six months of exposure to fact-checks on such beliefs and behaviors. Figure 8a generally reports no treatment effect on COVID-19 beliefs and preventative behavior for the three podcast treatments with fact-check quiz incentives. However, providing some support for hypothesis H7, we find that fact-checks delivered by short and simple text messages increased an index of health-conscious outcomes associated with COVID-19 by 0.16 standard deviations (
$ p<0.01 $
). Examining the components of the index separately, Table F12 in the Supplementary Material indicates that the effects of the text-only treatment are driven by significant increases in respondents’ willingness to comply with government policies by getting vaccinated, wearing a mask, and reducing indoor activity.
Figure 8. Treatment Effects on COVID-19 Beliefs and Preventative Behaviors and Views and Attitudes about the Government
Note: All outcomes are standardized ICW indexes (see items in Table 2). Top panels within each subfigure provide pooled estimates of treatment effects; bottom panels provide estimates with disaggregated treatment variants. Estimated using Equation 1; p-values are from pre-registered tests of differences between treatment variants indicated in bottom panels, while the interior and exterior bars represent 90% and 95% confidence intervals. Tables F12 and F13 in the Supplementary Material report regression results for each index and its components; Tables F14 and F15 in the Supplementary Material further include LASSO-selected covariates.
In line with hypothesis H8, Figure 8b reports an increase in favorable views toward the government—measured in terms of government performance appraisals, trust in government, and intentions to vote for their region’s incumbent party—across treatment conditions. The pooled treatment effect of 0.06 standard deviations (
$ p<0.05 $
) is largely driven by the text message format (
$ p<0.1 $
) and the short podcast (
$ p<0.01 $
). Table F13 in the Supplementary Material shows that these effects are primarily driven by significant increases in the extent to which respondents reported trusting information from politicians and the government most, as well as more favorable evaluations of government performance and willingness to vote for incumbent parties.
These results indicate that broader politically-relevant beliefs and behaviors are harder to move than the capacity to discern fact from fiction. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that the greater discernment and verification knowledge inspired by sustained exposure to fact-checks may start to push individuals to make fact-based judgments in their private and political lives as well. In particular, text messages that can be consumed at little cost appear to help combat misinformation-induced perspectives on polarizing issues.
CONCLUSION
Due to its potentially negative consequences for political and health-related behaviors, misinformation on social media is a growing concern around the globe. Recent studies have advanced our understanding of how to mitigate the consumption of, and susceptibility to, misinformation online. But most struggle to explain how sustained changes in beliefs and behaviors can be achieved beyond single-shot treatments with short-term effects.
In addition to estimating effects of sustained exposure to fact-checks, we explored two key challenges in a world where many factors compete for citizens’ attention: how to generate persistent consumption of corrective information and how to induce internalization of the lessons imparted by fact-check content. Our sustained intervention allowed us to examine whether fact-checking can play both debunking and prebunking roles by correcting existing misinformation and warning participants about future misinformation.Footnote 20 Partnering with an existing fact-checking organization, Africa Check, also highlights the relatively low cost and scalability of the intervention.
Our study yields several key conclusions. First, it is feasible to stimulate citizens to consume fact-checking content delivered through WhatsApp. Modest financial incentives helped to induce consumption in our South African sample; once the incentives were removed, treated participants expressed their desire to continue receiving Africa Check’s content. Consequently, while organic consumption was difficult to generate at the beginning, an initial push towards consumption may subsequently activate latent demand. Once high-quality fact-checking content is available, policymakers and researchers should therefore focus on generating initial exposure by: (i) finding ways to cultivate citizen demand for fact-checking content, whether by increasing their perceived importance or by capturing spillovers by enhancing their entertainment value; or (ii) using tools like media campaigns, trusted community leaders or online influencers, or school curricula to, at least initially, disseminate fact-checking content widely.
Second, sustained exposure to fact-checks helped to inoculate participants upon exposure to misinformation. While treated participants did not report altering behaviors that limit exposure to misinformation in the first place or active verification efforts, the intervention increased participants’ attention to veracity as well as capacity to discern fact from fiction and willingness to act on this by not sharing unverified online content. Since the effects we observe are relatively small in magnitude, it is imperative to increase the efficacy of inoculation efforts beyond the effects we document in this study. Such efforts should complement supply-side efforts targeting the production and promotion of misinformation.
Third, not all treatment arms performed equally: the simple text-only treatment and empathetic podcast treatments were the most effective delivery mechanisms for internalizing fact-checking messages. Our results thus suggest that repeated, short, and sharply-presented factual proclamations from a credible source are more likely to train people to approach information more critically than longer-form edutainment—unless such content prioritizes empathizing with consumers.
Finally, our results suggest that combating misinformation can be politically consequential. Although not all types of fact-checks generated significant effects, we find that sustained exposure to fact-checks made citizens somewhat more compliant with government policies and more trusting in incumbent governments. As such, text-based fact-checks that could be consumed almost costlessly helped to reverse two important concerns of the social media age, reduced state capacity and declining faith in government.
While our findings illustrate the potential for sustained fact-checking interventions to make citizens more discerning of the content they consume, several limitations point to avenues for future research. First, although fact-checks were consumed in a natural environment, we still recruited participants for an academic study. Since willing participants are likely to be at least somewhat interested in subscribing to online content, further research should examine whether our findings are larger or smaller in broader populations with lower barriers to opt-in and lower baseline levels of interest in and knowledge of fact-checking. Second, our results suggest that sustained exposure to fact checks can more durably reduce participants’ beliefs in misinformation and increase their ability to sort fact from fiction. However, our experiment was not designed to identify the length of exposure needed to achieve these effects—an important avenue for future work. Third, our treatment effects were strongest for participants with financial incentives to consume fact-checking content. As such, we demonstrate that the intervention can be effective, but more organically generating repeated exposure to fact-checks remains a critical outstanding research question. Fourth, this study largely relies on self-reported survey responses. Although our findings are unlikely to be driven by experimental demand effects (for reasons discussed above), studies conducted in more naturalistic environments would benefit from linking fact-checking interventions to behavioral outcomes.
In addition, several extensions to the study could improve our understanding of fact-checking and misinformation reduction overall. For example, there is more to be learned about which aspects of fact-checks make citizens more discerning. Our findings point to trust in content’s source and a general understanding of when and how to exercise skepticism as key mechanisms, but future research could further break apart the components of a typical fact-check to identify which components to emphasize. In addition, while we find positive effects from sustained exposure to fact-checking, our study design did not allow us to investigate potential variation based on ongoing political events, such as major elections. To understand how increased misinformation and polarization may shift fact checks’ efficacy, more research is needed. Finally, while Africa Check is a reputable fact-checking organization, fact-checkers may themselves be poor sources of information in some contexts. Future research may consider the question of how to ensure the credibility of fact-checkers.
South Africa’s salient political issues during this period—pandemic responses, identity politics, and economic concerns—are reflected in politics globally and contribute to misinformation worldwide. Our findings show that similar mechanisms that have helped to combat misinformation relating to polarizing issues in the Global North can generalize to Global South contexts, and thus advance existing scholarship on limiting misinformation’s potential for adverse effects (Blair et al. Reference Blair, Gottlieb, Nyhan, Paler, Argote and Stainfield2024; Cook, Lewandowsky, and Ecker Reference Cook, Lewandowsky and Ecker2017; Nyhan Reference Nyhan2020; Walter et al. Reference Walter, Cohen, Holbert and Morag2020). However, insofar as the problems of misinformation are exacerbated by the use of closed platforms such as WhatsApp, and by lower digital literacy in part due to costs associated with data usage, our study’s context highlights that the challenges of misinformation—and need for low-cost and scalable solutions—is especially pressing in the Global South. However, our findings are more optimistic than prior media literacy studies in the Global South (Badrinathan Reference Badrinathan2021; Guess et al. Reference Guess, Lerner, Lyons, Montgomery, Nyhan, Reifler and Sircar2020), suggesting that sustained observational learning via social media platforms themselves can help to combat misinformation.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
To view supplementary material for this article, please visit https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055424001394.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Research documentation and data that support the findings of this study are openly available at the American Political Science Review Dataverse: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/UNOOY0.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Africa Check and Volume, and in particular Kate Wilkinson, Taryn Khourie, and Paul McNally, for their cooperation with this study. We are grateful for helpful comments and feedback from Leticia Bode and Molly Offer-Westort and from participants of MPSA 2022, DIMIS Workshop, BID Workshop at TSE, PSPB Seminar at LSE, GSPP Seminar at UC Berkeley, PED Lunch at Stanford, Trust & Safety Research Conference 2022, and APSA 2022. This study was pre-registered in the Social Science Registry (www.socialscienceregistry.org/trials/7615), which also houses our pre-analysis plan. With thanks to Mert Akan and Rachel Raps for research assistance. The research team is grateful for funding from by the Harvard Data Science Initiative Trust in Science program, the Harvard Center for African Studies, and Facebook Health Partnerships programs. Larreguy gratefully acknowledges funding from the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche under the Investissement d’Avenir program ANR-17-EURE-0010.
FUNDING STATEMENT
This research was funded by the Harvard Data Science Initiative Trust in Science program, the Harvard Center for African Studies, and Facebook Health Partnerships Program.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no ethical issues or conflicts of interest in this research.
ETHICAL STANDARDS
The authors declare the human subjects research in this article was reviewed and approved by Institutional Review Boards at Columbia (IRB-AAAT2554), Duke (2024-003), Harvard (IRB20-0602), and UC Berkeley (2020-07-13490). The authors affirm that this article adheres to the principles concerning research with human participants laid out in APSA’s Principles and Guidance on Human Subject Research (2020).
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