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³ For a general theoretical review of these linkages see Davies, Ioan, Social Mobility and Political Change (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970), pp. 11–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lerner, Daniel, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1958), pp. 43–75Google Scholar; McCrone, Donald J. and Cnudde, Charles F., “Toward a Communications Theory of Democratic Political Development: A Causal Model,” American Political Science Review, 61 (March, 1967), 72–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵ The data for this research were derived from the various reports of the U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Census of Population (Washington, D.C.: G.P.O., 1872, 1883, 1895, 1901, 1913, 1922, 1933, 1943, 1952, 1962)Google Scholar.

⁶ For a similar critique see Sigelman, Lee, “Modernization and the Political System: A Critique and Preliminary Empirical Analysis,” Sage Professional Papers in Comparative Politics, 2 (1971), 12–13Google Scholar.

⁷ Winham, Gilbert, “Political Development and Lerner's Theory: Further Test of a Causal Model,” American Political Science Review, 64 (September, 1970), 810–818CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸ Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society.

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¹⁰ Pye, Lucian W., Aspects of Political Development (New York: Little, Brown, 1966)Google Scholar.

¹¹ Deutsch, Karl W., “Social Mobilization and Political Development,” American Political Science Review, 55 (September, 1961), 493–514CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹³ Hagen, Everett E., On the Theory of Social Change: How Economic Growth Begins (Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1962), pp. 12–16Google Scholar.

¹⁴ McClelland, David C., The Achieving Society (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, 1961)CrossRefGoogle Scholar also McClelland, David C. and Winter, David G., Motivating Economic Achievement (New York: The Free Press, 1969)Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Inkeles, Alex, “Participant Citizenship in Six Developing Countries,” American Political Science Review, 63 (December, 1969), 1120–1141CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶ Pye, pp. 45–48.

¹⁷ Deutsch, Karl W., Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality (New York: Wiley, 1953), pp. 97–126Google Scholar.

¹⁸ See Lerner and also McCrone and Cnudde.

¹⁹ Lenski, Gerhard E., Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), pp. 31–32Google Scholar.

²⁰ In fact, much modernization research used the formal educational attainment of the populace as a measure of modernization, thus framing the argument in terms of education as an index of modernity instead of as a means to modernity. See Lerner and also Deutsch, “Social Mobilization and Political Development.”

²¹ Lenski, p. 3ff.

²² There is an interesting parallel here between Lenski's discussion of institutional evolution of stratification systems, and Veblen's, ThorsteinThe Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Viking Press, 1912), pp. 60–70Google Scholar. At both ends of Lenski's spectrum, hunting and gathering societies and mature industrial societies, we find relatively loose stratification systems. Veblen's discussion of conspicuous consumption suggests that in primitive societies and industrial societies, conspicuous consumption is a right, whereas in traditional societies (Lenski's agrarian societies) it is a privilege. In both forms of society where conspicuous consumption is a right of the mass, we find loose stratification systems and no perception of limited good. Given the absence of limited good, and the flexibility of the stratification systems, conspicuous consumption is an obvious and probably necessary means of identify definition. Veblen argues that conspicuous consumption is a means of maintaining reputation, a primary component of individual identity. David Riesman's discussion of the “inner-directed” and “other-directed” individual follows similar logic; see The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964)Google Scholar. For a recent analysis of this interaction see Klapp, Orrin, Collective Search for Identity (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969)Google Scholar.

²³ Weiner, “Political Participation,” and Inkeles, , “Participant Citizenship,” pp. 1123–1124Google Scholar.

²⁴ Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society.

²⁵ Marquette, Jesse F., “Social Mobilization and the Philippine Political System,” Comparative Political Studies, 4 (October, 1971), 339–347CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²⁸ Blalock, Hubert M. Jr.,, Causal Inferences in Non-Experimental Research (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1964)Google Scholar.

²⁹ For an excellent analysis of the misleading effect of changes in electoral laws and practices on the conclusions of historical patterns, see Philip E. Converse's critique of Burnham's, Walter Dean “The Changing Shape of the American Political Universe,” American Political Science Review, 54 (March, 1965), 7–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Converse, Philip E., “Change in the American Electorate,” in The Human Meaning of Social Change, ed. Campbell, Angus and Converse, Philip E. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972), pp. 263–337Google Scholar.

³⁰ Interestingly enough this empirical cutpoint corresponds closely to the transition from the “maturity” period to the “high mass consumption” period suggested by Rostow for the U.S., Rostow, pp. 75–76.

³¹ Blalock, Causal Inferences in Non-Experimental Research.

³² Deutsch, , “Social Mobilization and Political Development,” pp. 496–497Google Scholar.

³³ For a similar model see Marquette, , “Social Mobilization and the Philippine Political System,” p. 340Google Scholar.

³⁴ Reported correlations are based on untransformed data, although all correlations were checked by logarithmic transformations since some of the growth rates were slightly curvilinear.

³⁵ Huntington, “The Change to Change.”

³⁶ Merton, Robert K., Social Theory and Social Structure (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1949), pp. 125–149Google Scholar.

³⁷ Lerner, Daniel, “Toward a Communication Theory of Modernization: A Set of Considerations,” in Communications and Political Development, ed. Pye, Lucian W. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 333Google Scholar.

³⁸ Lerner, , “The Passing of Traditional Society,” pp. 43–75Google Scholar; “Communications Systems and Social Systems: A Statistical Exploration in History and Policy,” Behavioral Science, 2 (October, 1957), 266–75Google Scholar; and Deutsch, “Social Mobilization and Political Development.”

³⁹ Huntington, Samuel P., Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), p. 55Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Holt, Robert T. and Turner, John E., The Political Basis of Economic Development: An Exploration in Comparative Political Analysis (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1966)Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Pye, Lucian W., Politics, Personality and Nation-Building: Burma's Search for Identity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962)Google Scholar.

⁴² Hagen, , On the Theory of Social Change, pp. 123–160Google Scholar.

⁴³ Holt and Turner, p. 31.

⁴⁴ Ibid., p. 30.

⁴⁵ Hagen, , On the Theory of Social Change, pp. 141–143Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Merton, pp. 134–140.

⁴⁷ Huntington, . “The Change to Change,” pp. 287–298Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ Bendix, Reinhard, “Tradition and Modernity Reconsidered” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 9 (April, 1967), 313–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Rudolph, Lloyd I. and Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber, The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967), pp. 3–14Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ It may be useful to make a distinction between rational anxiety, uncertainty and concern produced by a rapidly changing social situation, and irrational anxiety, uncertainty and concern produced by individual misperception of cues understood by the majority of individuals. Our concern focuses on the effect of rational anxiety on the identity definition process, as this anxiety results from and is reflected in rapid social change.

⁵⁰ Erikson, Erik H., Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: Norton, 1968), p. 22Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Ibid., pp. 31–32.

⁵² Talcott Parsons has suggested that Freud's later work also demonstrated increasing concern with social stress on the development of the ego. See Parsons, , “Social Structure and the Development of Personality: Freud's Contribution to the Integration of Psychology and Sociology,” Psychiatry, 21 (1958), 321–340CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁵³ Deutsch, , “Social Mobilization and Political Development,” p. 496Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Ibid., pp. 496–498; Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society; Inkeles, “Participant Citizenship.”

⁵⁵ Dahrendorf has argued that the changing nature of identity referents suggested by Riesman was actually argued much earlier by Tocqueville; see “Democracy without Liberty: An Essay on Other-Directed Man,” in Culture and Social Character: The Work of David Riesman Reviewed, ed. Lipset, Seymour Martin and Lowenthal, Leo (New York: Free Press, 1961), pp. 175–206Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Erikson, pp. 22–24.

⁵⁷ Klapp, (Collective Search for Identity, pp. 73–116)Google Scholar pursues this analysis in terms of not only physical symbols but also patterns of leisure, movement membership, etc.

⁵⁸ Riesman pursues a similar argument in The Lonely Crowd, pp. 11–36.

⁵⁹ The changing use of symbols had been paralleled by changes in the myth system underlying the symbols; see Weiss, Richard, The American Myth of Success: From Horatio Alger to Norman Vincent Peale (New York: Basic Books, 1969)Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ The ultimate cessation of other sources of change was the explicit reason behind Hagen's postulation of a personality type—the innovative individual. Hagen, , Theory of Social Change, pp. 12–16Google Scholar.

⁶¹ In our literature the problem is perhaps best illustrated by Babbitt's encounter with a cigar-lighter as a new means of self-definition. Lewis, Sinclair, Babbitt (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1922), pp. 52–57Google Scholar.

⁶² Such uncertainty is one of the major results of competitive consumption. Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class; and Lenski, Power and Privilege.

⁶³ Emile Durkheim's formulation of a norm most clearly illustrates the process of translation from social to political legitimation. See Sociology and Philosophy, Pocock, D. F., trans. (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1953), pp. 40–46Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Weber, Max, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed. Gerth, H. H. and Mills, C. W. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), pp. 224–229Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Inkeles, , “Participant Citizenship,” pp. 1122–1123Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Hartz, Louis, The Liberal Tradition in America: An Interpretation of American Political Thought Since the Revolution (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1955)Google Scholar; De Tocqueville, Alexis, Democracy in America (New York: Edward Walker, 1847)Google Scholar.