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² Ibid., pp. 61–62.

³ In Ideology and Discontent, ed., Apter, David E. (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964), pp. 206–262 Google Scholar. For an interesting attempt to rebut Converse, see Luttberg, Norman R., “The Structure of Beliefs among Leaders and the Public,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 32 (Fall, 1968), 398–410 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ Converse, loc. cit., pp. 207–213.

⁵ Ibid., p. 207.

⁶ Lane, Robert E., Political Ideology (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), p. 15 Google Scholar. The uses of the term “ideology” are legion. Therefore, we have defined the term in our own way. For further elucidation, see Ibid., pp. 13–17.

⁷ Converse, op. cit., p. 218.

⁸ For a thoroughly tangled statement of the interrelationships of participation and cognition, see Milbrath, Lester W., Political Participation (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1965), pp. 62–66ffGoogle Scholar.

⁹ Ibid.

¹⁰ Ibid., p. 21.

¹¹ Converse, op. cit., p. 213. See also Campbell, Angus et al., The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960), p. 476 Google Scholar.

¹² See, for example, the pieces by Lipset, Seymour and Hofstader, Richard in The Radical Right, ed., Bell, Daniel (Garden City: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1964)Google Scholar; and Gusfield, Joseph R., Symbolic Crusade (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963)Google Scholar. For an early statement of the theory underlying these formulations, see Lenski, Gerhard, “Status Crystallization: A Non-Vertical Dimension of Social Status,” American Sociological Review, 19 (08, 1954), 405–413 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ Lerner, Daniel, The Nazi Elite (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1951), p. 85 Google Scholar.

¹⁴ For a review and empirical test of the two theories, see Merelman, Richard M., “Intimate Environments and Political Behavior,” Midwest Journal of Political Science, 12 (08, 1968), 382–400 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. A case study of the same phenomenon is Frazier, E. Franklin, Black Bourgeoisie (New York: Collier Books, 1962)Google Scholar.

¹⁵ The fullest statement of this position may be found in Bell, Daniel, The End of Ideology (New York: Collier Books, 1961), pp. 393–407 Google Scholar.

¹⁶ For one of the best national character treatments of Americans, see Lerner, Max, America as a Civilization (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957)Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Bandura, Albert and Walters, Richard H., Social Learning and Personality Development (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1963), p. 25 Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Adelson, Joseph and O'Neil, Robert P., “The Growth of Political Ideas in Adolescence: The Sense of Community,” unpublished, n. d., 29 Google Scholar.

¹⁹ The most important sources for this aspect of Piaget's thought are Inhelder, Barbel and Piaget, Jean, The Growth of Logical Thinking, trans. Parsons, Anne and Milgram, Stanley (New York: Basic Books, 1958)Google Scholar; and Piaget, Jean, The Language and Thought of the Child (Cleveland and New York: Meridian Books, 1955)Google Scholar. For an extensive review of the pertinent literature and a helpful bibliography, see Laurendeau, Monique and Pinard, Adrien, Causal Thinking in the Child (New York: International Universities Press, 1962), chaps. 1–4Google Scholar.

²⁰ op. cit.

²¹ Kohlberg, Lawrence, “The Development of Children's Orientations Toward a Moral Order: I. Sequence in the Development of Moral Thought,” Vita Humana, 6 (1963), 11–33, 18 Google Scholar.

²² Laurendeau and Pinard, op. cit., 107.

²³ Ibid., 161.

²⁴ Ibid., 188–192.

²⁵ Ibid., 192–196.

²⁶ Dennis, Wayne, “Animistic Thinking Among College and University Students,” Scientific Monthly, 76 (04, 1953), 247–249 Google Scholar. Other sources cited therein and in Laurendeau and Pinard are particularly useful on this topic.

²⁷ Laurendeau and Pinard, op. cit., chap. 9.

²⁸ Adelson and O'Neil, loc. cit., 8–9.

²⁹ Piaget, op. cit., pp. 45–16.

³⁰ Piaget, Jean, The Moral Judgment of the Child (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1965), p. 45 Google Scholar.

³¹ Piaget, , The Language and Thought…, p. 66 Google Scholar.

³² Piaget, , The Moral Judgment…, pp. 50–65 Google Scholar.

³³ It is this tendency on the part of the child which Piaget has labeled “moral realism.” Ibid., pp. 109–197.

³⁴ Ibid., p. 251.

³⁵ Ibid., pp. 251–263.

³⁶ Ibid., pp. 121–163.

³⁷ Ibid., pp. 101–197. For a recent attempt to test this hypothesis in the area of childhood attitudes about political authorities, see Jaros, Dean, “Children's Orientations Toward the President: Some Additional Theoretical Considerations and Data,” Journal of Politics, 29 (05, 1967), 368–388 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁸ Piaget, op. cit., p. 83.

³⁹ Stephenson, Geoffrey M., The Development of Conscience (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966), p. 43 Google Scholar.

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⁴¹ Kohlberg, op. cit., pp. 13–14.

⁴² Parenthetically, it is striking the extent to which the development of the child, as outlined in this theory, resembles historical developments over whole eras. For example, we have talked much about the child's shift from an external, but wholly dictatorial form of morality to an internalized conscience. This shift seems to parallel what many scholars believe to be the difference between late Old Testament Judaism and early Christianity. Many scholars have commented upon the emphasis on legalism and expiation in Old Testament Judaism, and the disintegration of codification thereafter. We have no wish to argue seriously that ontogeny does recapitulate phylogeny. We only wish to indicate the parallelism. The young child's belief in ritualism, supernaturalism, the deus ex machina, etc., remind one, however, of the thought processes of “primitive” people. To develop this argument so as to make it more palatable to the reader would require knowledge and space not available to the author. The general idea seems worth pursuing, however.

⁴³ Piaget's immense corpus of work is only now having a major impact in the United States. For an enjoyable introduction to his thought, see Elkind, David, “Giant in the Nursery–Jean Piaget,” New York Times Magazine, 05 26, 1968 Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ See Bronfenbrenner, Urie, “The Role of Age, Sex, Class, and Culture in Studies of Moral Development,” Religious Education (Research Supplement), 62 (07-August, 1962), S-3, S-5, S–18 Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Bronfenbrenner, loc. cit. For the first empirical study to touch this deficiency, see Harrower, M. R., “Social Status and Moral Development,” British Journal of Educational Psychology, 5 (1935), 75–95 Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ For an overview of Sullivan's work, see Mullahy, Patrick (ed.), The Contributions of Harry Stack Sullivan (New York: Hermitage House, 1952), chaps. 1–2Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ For example, Piaget sets only a percentage boundary on thought categories; he also admits that a particular child may evidence thought characteristic of a variety of levels at once. Piaget, The Moral Judgment…, passim.

⁴⁸ Ibid., chap. 3.

⁴⁹ See the review and codification of the relevant literature in Winch, Robert F., Identification and Its Familial Determinants (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1962)Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ This formulation should not be taken to imply that identification has an unambiguous meaning. Lazowick, for example, has specified at least three major definitions which seem currently in use: 1) acting as if the subject were the same person as his model; 2) imitating the model; 3) introjecting the model's norms and values. Lionel Lazowick, M., “On the Nature of Identification,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51 (09, 1955), 175–184, 175-176CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. Bronfenbrenner specifies yet a fourth meaning, i.e., acting in terms of an ideal image of the model rather than on the basis of his actual behavior. Bronfenbrenner, Urie, “The Study of Identification through Interpersonal Perception,” in Person Perception and Interpersonal Behavior, eds., Tagiuri, Renato and Petrullo, Luigi (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958), pp. 110–131, 123Google Scholar. Despite their importance for psychology, these definitional ambiguities do not affect the basic argument of this paper.

⁵¹ Keniston, Kenneth, The Uncommitted: Alienated Youth in American Society (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1965), chap. 6Google Scholar.

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⁵³ Lipset, Seymour Martin and Altbach, Philip G., “Student Politics and Higher Education in the United States,” in Student Politics, ed., Lipset, Seymour Martin (New York: Basic Books, 1967), pp. 199–252, 216Google Scholar.

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⁵⁵ For concise statements of opposing positions, see Winch, op. cit., p. 35, and McCord, Joan, McCord, William, and Thurber, Emily, “Some Effects of Paternal Absence on Male Children,” in Studies in Adolescence, ed., Grinder, Robert E. (New York: Macmillan, 1963), 118–133 Google Scholar. For studies indicating the possible importance of father absence to both identification and political ideology, see Keniston, , The Uncommitted …, esp. 113–118 Google Scholar; and Jaros, Dean, Hirsch, Herbert, and Fleron, Frederic J. Jr., “The Malevolent Leader: Political Socialization in an American Sub-Culture,” this Review, 62 (06, 1968), 564–578, 573Google Scholar.

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⁶⁰ Ibid., S-25.

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⁷⁰ I do not contend that psychological modes of punishment may not be frustrating. But physical intervention to block desired behavior probably is more frustrating than psychological intervention.

⁷¹ Mullahy, op. cit., p. 34.

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⁷⁶ Odier, op. cit., pp. 48–49.

⁷⁷ The most spectacular tendency involved is, of course, scapegoating.

⁷⁸ Ames, Louise Bates, “The Development of the Sense of Time in the Young Child,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, 68, First Half (03, 1946), 97–125, 110Google ScholarPubMed.

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⁸⁰ Mischel, Walter, “Preference for Delayed Reinforcement and Social Responsibility,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62 (01, 1961), 1–8 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

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⁸³ Brown, Roger, “How Shall a Thing be Called?” in The Cognitive Process: Readings, ed., Harper, Robert J. C. et al. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1964), 647–655, 651Google Scholar.

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⁸⁵ Hartshorne, H. and May, M. A., Studies in the Nature of Character, vol. I (New York: Macmillan, 1928)Google Scholar. Hartshorne, H., May, M. A., and Mailer, J. B., Studies in the Nature of Character, v. II (New York: Macmillan, 1929)Google Scholar. Hartshorne, H., May, M. A., and Shuttleworth, F. K., Studies in the Nature of Character, v. III (New York: Macmillan, 1930)Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ MacRae, Duncan Jr., “A Test of Piaget's Theories of Moral Development,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49 (01, 1954), 14–18 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. Grinder's assertion that by age 11 the various measures of conscience intercorrelate closely seems to represent a minority position. The evidence simply does not support his argument. Grinder, op. cit., 818.

⁸⁷ As cited in Hoffman, op. cit., S-29.

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⁹⁰ For a recent article which evidences realization of this problem, see Dennis, Jack, “Major Problems of Political Socialization Research,” Midwest Journal of Political Science, 12 (02, 1968), 85–115 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹¹ For a discussion, see Greenstein, Fred I., Children and Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), chap. 3Google Scholar, and the sources cited therein. Also, Hess, Robert D. and Torney, Judith V., The Development of Political Attitudes in Children (Chicago: Alldine, 1967), chaps. 2-3Google Scholar; Jaros, Hirsch, and Fleron, op. cit.; and Jaros, op. cit.

⁹² These aspects of childish thought seem similar to “dreamwork” in the psychoanalytic theory of dreams.

⁹³ The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Grove Press, 1964), chap. 1Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ The names of Woodrow Wilson, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X come most readily to mind.

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⁹⁶ Compare ibid. with Hyman, op. cit., p. 74.

⁹⁷ Stephenson, op. cit., p. 112. For evidence indicating the superiority of first-born children over middle children in two other spheres–occupational and educational achievement, see Blau, Peter M. and Duncan, Otis Dudley, The American Occupational Structure (New York: Wiley, 1968), pp. 307–308 Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Lane, op. cit. For an excellent empirical description of one kind of ideological structure, with moral standards at the forefront of the discussion, see Berkowitz, Leonard and Lutterman, Kenneth G., “The Traditionally Socially Responsible Personality,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 32 (Summer, 1968), 169–186 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁹ Brinton, Crane, The Anatomy of Revolution, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ For evidence on these characteristics of mass publics, see Stouffer, Samuel, Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties (Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1963)Google Scholar; McClosky, Herbert, “Consensus and Ideology in American Politics,” Political Opinion and Electoral Behavior, ed., Dryer, Edward C. and Rosenbaum, Walter A. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1966), 236–267 Google Scholar; Prothro, James W. and Grigg, C. W., “Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Bases of Agreement and Disagreement,” Journal of Politics, 22 (Spring, 1960), 276–294 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berelson, Bernard R., Lazarsfeld, Paul F., and Mac-Phee, William H., Voting (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954), chap. 14Google Scholar. For a recent critique, see Bachrach, Peter, The Theory of Democratic Elitism (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967)Google Scholar.

¹⁰¹ A study which addresses this problem is Eckstein, Harry, A Theory of Stable Democracy (Princeton: Center of International Studies, 1961)Google Scholar.

¹⁰² Lipset, Seymour Martin, Political Man (Garden City: Anchor Books, 1960), chap. 2Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ Lasswell, Harold D., “Democratic Character,” in The Political Writings of Harold Lasswell (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1951), pp. 465–525 Google Scholar. For a recent discussion of these same problems, see Greenstein, Fred I., “Personality and Political Socialization: The Theories of Authoritarian and Democratic Character,” The Annals, 361 (09, 1965), 81–95 Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ Edelman, Murray, The Symbolic Uses of Politics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964), chap. 9Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ Converse, op. cit.