¹ Russell, Bertrand, History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1945), p. 33 Google Scholar.

^1a I am indebted to Dr. John P. Spiegel for having drawn my attention to the similarity between figure-ground perception and the perception of new configurations in art or science.

² Such contexts are social, as well as psychological and physical. On the problems of interpretation, see Habermas, Jürgen, Strukturwandel der Offentlichkeit, 2nd ed., (Neuwied a/Rh-Berlin: Luchterhand, 1965)Google Scholar; Erkenntnis und Interesse (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1968)Google Scholar; “Toward a Theory of Communicative Competence,” in Dreitzel, H. P. (ed.), Recent Sociology No. 2: Patterns of Communicative Behavior, (London: Collier-Macmillan Ltd., 1970)Google Scholar; and Towards a Rational Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), esp. Chap. 5Google Scholar. See now also Platt, John R., Perception and Change: Projections for Survival (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1971), pp. 25–73 Google Scholar.

³ For the relationship of poetry and rational theory in early Greek philosophy, see Jaeger, Werner, Paideia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1945), vol. I, pp. 152–153 Google Scholar.

⁴ For the concept of “presentational” vs. “discursive” communication, see Langer, Susan K., Philosophy in a New Key, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951), pp. 79–102 Google Scholar.

⁵ See Kuhn, Thomas S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1962)Google Scholar.

⁶ To assert an “end of ideology” in a general sense would be to assert an end of the search for wisdom. It would mean an end to the changing goals by individuals and societies, to the choice among conflicting goals, or to the changing of priorities among them. Only if we restrict the term “ideology” to those belief systems which restrict or exclude any control by reality, would it be rational to consider to what extent the class of such forms of reality-distorting or reality-excluding ideologies might decline in frequency and social influence, and under what conditions. For a different point of view, see Bell, Daniel The End of Ideology (rev. ed.; New York: Free Press, 1966)Google Scholar; and for a relevant discussion, see LaPalombara, Joseph, “Decline of Ideology: A Dissent and an Interpretation,” this Review, 60 (03 1966), 5–16 Google Scholar. Cf. also Mannheim, Karl, Ideology and Utopia (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1947)Google Scholar; Waxman, Chaim Isaac (ed.), The-End-of-Ideology Debate, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969 Google ScholarPubMed.

⁷ Platt, John R., “Hierarchical Restructuring” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Nov. 1970, pp. 2–4, 46–48 Google Scholar; also in General Systems, v. 15 (1970), pp. 49–54 Google ScholarPubMed.

⁸ Cf. Deutsch, K. W., “On Theories, Taxonomies, and Models as Communication Codes for Organizing Information,” Behavioral Science, (Jan. 1966), 1–17 Google Scholar.

⁹ This point is discussed in Deutsch, K. W., The Nerves of Government (rev. ed.; New York: Free Press, 1966), pp. 251–252 Google Scholar. See also the discussion of “etherealisation” in Toynbee, Arnold, A Study of History, (3rd ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 1945), Vol. III, pp. 174–192 Google Scholar.

¹⁰ As a branch of knowledge, heuristics is the study of finding, or invention, and of the methods and conditions which favor it The word recalls the reported shout of Archimedes “Heureka!—I have found it!” when he ran naked from his bathtub into the streets of Syracuse, overjoyed by his discovery that the volume of any body, no matter how irregular in shape, can be measured by the amount of fluid it displaces on immersion. See Polya, George, How to Solve It, second ed. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1957), pp. 112–114, 129–134 Google Scholar.

¹¹ See e.g. Morse, Philip M., “On Browsing: The Use of Search Theory in the Search for Information,” (Cambridge: Technical Report No. 50, Operations Research Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, February 1970)Google Scholar, mimeographed.

¹² According to the “ether” theory of physics, waves in the invisible “ether” permitted the sending of wireless signals across the Atlantic. The “ether” theory was replaced by relativistic physics after the “ether” had turned out to be non-existent, but the existential statement “there is wireless telegraphy” had to be taken over by the more recent theory. The proposition “there can be wireless telegraphy” was not only capable of being “falsified,” as Sir Karl Popper likes to use the verb. It was verified by the building and operating of broadcasting stations and receiving sets, and every serious future theory of physics henceforth had to be compatible with this verified fact. For the concept of truth-content as a test of acceptable successor theories, see Deutsch, K. W. “On Methodological Problems of Quantitative Research,” in Dogan, Mattei and Rokkan, Stein (eds.), Quantitative Ecological Analysis in the Social Sciences (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1969), pp. 19–39 Google Scholar.

¹³ Cf. Rapoport, Anatol “Some System Approaches to Political Theory” in Easton, David (ed.), Varieties of Political Theory (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1966), pp. 129–141 Google Scholar. Political theory requires an awareness not only of values but also, and particularly, of human needs. A value for a political actor is whatever he happens to desire; a need for him is any condition or inpul which he cannot forgo, or lack, without suffering significant observable damage. Needs and values overlap but imperfectly. Men may value what they do not need, and need what they do not value. Seventeenth century sailors who had never heard of vitamin C still fell ill from scurvy without it. Whether physical or psychic, needs are objective and verifiable, at least in principle, relative to each actor. For an important plea for orienting political theory more closely to human needs, see Bay, Christian, “The Cheerful Science of Dismal Politics,” in Roszak, Theodore, ed., The Dissenting Academy (New York: Pantheon Books-Random House, 1968), pp. 208–230 Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Cf. Kant, Immanuel, “ Idee zu einer allgemeinen Gescbichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht,” Berlinische Monatsschrift, 1784, pp. 385–411 Google Scholar, reprinted in Kant, , Was Ist Aufklärung? Aufsätz zur Geschichte und Philosophie (Göttingen: Vandenhook Ruprecht, 1967) pp. 40–54 Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Heraclitus called the latter type of knowledge “fronesis”: Jaeger, Werner, Paideia I, pp. 180, 184 Google Scholar.

¹⁶ See the references in note 6, above. For a proposed concept of “extreme” ideology as one closed to reality correction, see Deutsch, K. W., Politics and Government: How People Decide Their Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970), pp. 9–10 Google Scholar.

¹⁷ For a sociological approach compatible with this view, see Etzioni, Amitai, The Active Society: A Theory of Societal and Political Processes (New York: Macmillan, 1968)Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Cf. Hirschman, Albert O., The Strategy of Economic Development (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958)Google Scholar; and Hirschman, A. O. and Lindblom, Charles E., “Economic Development, Research and Development, Policy Making: Some Converging Views,” Behavioral Science, 7:2, April 1962, pp. 211–222 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; cf. also Etzioni, op cit, p. 110. See also Jaguaribe, Helio, Economic and Political Development: A Theoretical Approach and a Brazilian Case Study, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moore, Barrington Jr., Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966)Google Scholar; and, for a different approach, Huntington, Samuel P., Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ See Lasswell, Harold D., Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (Cleveland: Meridian Books, 1958)Google Scholar; and Easton, David, The Political System: An Inquiry Into the State of Political Science, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953)Google Scholar.

²⁰ See Dahl, Robert A. “The Concept of Power”, Behavioral Science, 2 (07 1957), 201–215 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; cf. also Dahl's, Modern Political Analysis, (2nd ed.; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1970)Google Scholar.

²¹ For examples of such data, see Russett, Bruce M., Alker, Hayword R. Jr., Deutsch, Karl W. and Lasswell, Harold D., World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964)Google Scholar; Taylor, Charles L. (ed.), Aggregate Data Analysis: Political and Social Indicators in Cross-National Research (Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1968)Google Scholar; Hudson, Michael and Taylor, Charles, Second World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators (New Haven: Yale University Press, pub. sched. 1971)Google Scholar; Singer, J. David, The Wages of War (New York: Wiley, pub. sched. 1971)Google Scholar: Singer, J. D. (ed.), Quantitative International Politics: Insight and Evidence (New York: Free Press-Macmillan, 1968)Google Scholar; and Beyond Conjecture: Data-Based Research in Political Science (with Jones, Susan), (Chicago: Peacock Publishing Co., pub. sched. 1971)Google Scholar; Bauer, Raymond (ed.), Social Indicators (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1966)Google Scholar. For a careful and comprehensive discussion, see Merritt, Richard L., Systematic Approaches to Comparative Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1970)Google Scholar.

²² See Russett, Bruce M., Alker, Hayward R. Jr., Deutsch, Karl W. and Lasswell, Harold D., World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators, p. 63 Google Scholar.

²³ See Fleron, Frederick J. Jr., (ed.), Communist Studies and the Social Sciences: Essays on Methodology and Empirical Theory (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1970)Google Scholar; Merritt, Richard L. and Rokkan, Stein (eds.), Comparing Nations: The Use of Quantitative Data in Cross-National Research (New Haven; Yale University Press, 1966)Google Scholar; and Dogan, Mattei and Rokkan, Stein (eds.), Quantitative Ecological Analysis in the Social Sciences (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1969)Google Scholar, for discussions of intranational as well as international comparisons.

²⁴ See the literature cited in note 20.

²⁵ Deutsch, Karl W., “The Impact of Complex Data Bases on the Social Sciences,” in Bisco, Ralph L. (ed.), Data Bases, Computers, and the Social Sciences (New York: Wiley, 1970), pp. 19–41 Google Scholar, esp. p. 30. See also, Eulau, Heinz and March, James G., eds., Political Science, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969), p. 58 Google Scholar.

²⁶ Cf. Schuman, Frederick L., International Politics: Anarchy and Order in the World Society (7th ed.; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), p. viii, n.1.Google Scholar; Morgenthau, Hans, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, (July 1965)Google Scholar; For an opposite approach, see Rosenau, James N., ed., International Politics and Foreign Policy, revised ed. (New York: Free Press-Macmillan, 1969)Google Scholar, and the collections edited by J. David Singer (note 20, above).

²⁷ An example for the potential fruitfulness of this interplay for the widening of the perceptions of social scientists is the appearance of two valuable new chapters, on inequality and on problems of the environment, in the 8th edition of the classic textbook by Samuelson, Paul A., Economics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970)Google ScholarPubMed.

²⁸ Schelling, Thomas C., The Strategy of Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960)Google Scholar; Arms and Influence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966)Google ScholarPubMed; Green, Philip, Deadly Logic: The Theory of Nuclear Deterrence (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1966)Google Scholar.

²⁹ Marcuse, Herbert, One Dimensional Man (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964)Google Scholar; Wolff, Robert Paul, Marcuse, Herbert and Moore, Barrington Jr., A Critique of Pure Tolerance (Boston: Beacon Press, 1965)Google Scholar.

³⁰ Lipset, Seymour Martin, Political Man (Garden City: Doubleday, 1960)Google Scholar and Revolution and Counter-revolution: Change and Persistence in Social Structures (New York: Basic Books, 1968)Google Scholar; Harrington, Michael, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1963)Google Scholar; Lane, Robert E., Political Ideology: Why the American Common Man believes what he does (New York: Free Press, 1962)Google Scholar. For a recent study of some aspects of the politics of poverty in a single State, see Beer, Samuel H. and Barringer, Richard E., eds., The State and the Poor (Cambridge: Winthrop Publishers, 1970)Google Scholar.

³¹ Deutsch, Karl W., Platt, John R. and Senghaas, Dieter, Major Advances in Social Science Since 1900: An Analysis of Conditions and Effects of Creativity (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Mental Health Research Institute, The University of Michigan, 1970)Google Scholar, Communication 273, lithoprinted: and for an abridged version, Science, (February 5, 1971), pp. 450–459 Google ScholarPubMed.

³² Rapoport, Anatol, Strategy and Conscience (New York: Harper & Row, 1964)Google Scholar.

³³ Lynd, Robert, Knowledge for What? New York: Grove Press, 1964)Google Scholar; Riesman, David, Abundance for What? And Other Essays (New York: Doubleday, (1964)Google Scholar; Adorno, Theodor W., Negative Dialeklik (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1966)Google Scholar; Mitscherlich, Alexander, Toward Society Without a Father (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1964)Google Scholar; Die Idee des Friedens und die menschliche Aggressivität (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1970)Google Scholar and Versuch, die Welt besser zu bestehen (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1970)Google Scholar; Lowi, Theodore J., The End of Liberalism: Ideology, Policy, and the Crisis of Public Authority (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1969)Google Scholar; Parenti, Michael, The Anti-Communist Impulse (New York; Random House, 1969)Google Scholar Connolly, William (ed.), The Bias of Pluralism (New York: Atherton Press, 1969)Google Scholar. Habermas, Jürgen, Theorie und Praxis (Neuwied: Luchterhand, 1963)Google Scholar, and works listed in nole 2, above.

³⁴ Marschak, Jacob, “Probability in the Social Sciences,” in Lazarsfeld, Paul F., ed., Mathematical Thinking in the Social Sciences (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1954), pp. 166–215 Google Scholar.

³⁵ Lasswell, Harold D., The Future of Political Science (New York: Atherton Press, 1963)Google Scholar; Eulau, Heinz, Micro-Macro Political Analysis: Accents of Inquiry (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1969)Google Scholar; Galtung, Johan, Theory and Methods of Social Research (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967)Google Scholar; Golembiewski, Robert T., Welsh, William A. and Crotty, William J., A Methodological Primer for Political Scientists (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1969)Google Scholar; Parsons, Talcott, Politics and Social Structure (New York: Free Press-Macmillan, 1969)Google Scholar; Piaget, Jean, Le structuralisme (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1968)Google Scholar; Almond, G. A., Political Development: Essays in Heuristic Theory (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970)Google Scholar.

³⁶ The Republic of Plato translated by Cornford, Francis MacDonald (New York: Oxford University Press, 1945), pp. 265 ff.Google Scholar

³⁷ Henry V, Act 4:3, 29–30.

³⁸ King Henry IV, Part 1, Act 1:3, 201–202.

³⁹ See Lane, Robert E., Political Thinking and Consciousness: The Private Life of the Political Mind (Chicago: Markham, 1969)Google Scholar. Erikson, Erik H., Gandhi's Truth, New York: Norton, 1969)Google Scholar. Almond, Gabriel A. and Verba, Sidney, The Civic Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mead, Margaret, New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformation-Manus (New York: Morrow, 1956)Google Scholar; Henry, Jules, Culture Against Man (New York: Random House-Vintage Books, 1965)Google Scholar; Kluckhohn, Florence R. and Stoodtbeck, Fred R., Variations in Value Orientations (Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1961)Google Scholar; Roazen, Paul, Freud: Political and Social Thought (New York: Random House-Vintage Books, 1970)Google Scholar; Bell, Daniel, “The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism,” The Public Interest, no. 21, Fall 1970, pp. 16–43 Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ See Neumann, John Von and Morgenstern, Oskar, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947)Google Scholar; Rapoport, Anatol, Fights, Games and Debates (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1960)Google Scholar.

⁴¹ For the last-named, see Hoopes, Townsend, The Limits of Intervention (New York: David McKay, 1969)Google Scholar; Taylor, Telford, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Chicago. Quadrangle Books, 1970)Google Scholar; and Hersh, Seymoure, My Lai IV (New York: Random House, 1970)Google Scholar.

⁴² Manuel, Frank, Utopias and Utopian Thought (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966)Google Scholar. The opposite of Utopia is technocracy, the adding of mere technological power to an unchanged value structure. For a critical exploration of these problems see Narr, Wolf-Dieter, Theoriebegriffe und Systemtheorie (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag, 1969)Google Scholar; Koch, Claus and Senghaas, Dieter (eds.), Texte zur Technokratiediscussion (Frankfurt: Europáische Verlagsanstalt, 1970)Google Scholar and the important Czechoslovak contribution by Richta, Radovan et al., Civilizace na rozcestí (Prague: Svoboda, 1969)Google Scholar.

⁴³ Triffin's, Robert proposals are summarized in Le Monde, (Paris), July 9, 1968, p. 6 Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Hirschman, Albert O., Exit, Voice and Loyalty (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970)Google ScholarPubMed.

⁴⁵ See Lipset, Seymour Martin (ed.), Politics and the Social Sciences (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970)Google Scholar; Abelson, Robert P., Simulation of Social Behavior (New Haven: Yale University, 1969)Google Scholar (mimeographed pub. forthcoming); Russett, Bruce M., What Price Vigilance? The Burdens of National Defense (New Haven, Conn.; Yale University Press, 1970)Google Scholar, and Russett, Bruce M. (ed.), Economic Theories of International Politics (Chicago: Markham Publishing Company, 1968)Google Scholar; Axelrod, Robert, Conflict of Interest: A Theory of Divergent Goals with Applications to Politics (Chicago: Markham Publishing Company, 1970)Google Scholar; Alker, Hayward R. Jr., Mathematics and Politics (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965)Google Scholar; Coplin, William, Simulation in the Study of Politics (Chicago: Markham, 1968)Google Scholar; Guetzkow, Harold (ed.), Simulation in Social Science (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962)Google Scholar; Guetzkow, Harold, Alger, Chadwick F., Brody, Richard A., North, Robert C. and Snyder, Richard C., Simulation in International Relations: Developments for Research and Teaching (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963)Google Scholar; Gurr, Ted Robert, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970)Google Scholar; de Sola Pool, Ithiel, Abelson, Robert P. and Popkin, Samuel L., Candidates, Issues and Strategies: A Computer Simulation in the 1960 and 1964 Presidential Elections (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1965)Google Scholar; Sidjanski, Dusan, ed., Méthodes quantitatives et integration européenne (Geneva: Institut universitaire d'études européennes, 1970)Google Scholar.

See also some of the papers read at the 8th World Congress of Political Science, Munich, September 1970, mimeographed: Hayward R. Alker, Jr., “Multivariate Methods in Political Science: A Review, Critique and Some Further Suggestions,” Richard W. Chadwick, “Steps Toward a Probabilistic Systems Theory of Political Behavior, with Special Reference to Integration Theory,” Raymond F. Hopkins. “Mathematical Modeling of Mobilization/Assimilation Processes,” Gerald H. Kramer, “Theory of Electoral Systems,” Anatol Rapoport, “Threat Games: A Comparison of Performance of Danish and American Subjects,” William H. Riker and Peter Ordeshook. “A Theory of the Number of Political Parties: The Case of India,” Paul Smoker, “International Relations Simulations: A Summary,” and Harrison C. White, “Congestion, Decoupling and Freedom: Some Implications of Queue Models for Control and Spontaneity in Social Systems.

⁴⁶ The attack on the minority poverty in the highly industrialized countries should go hand-in-hand, of course, with an attack on the mass poverty in the world's less developed regions. The latter task, the abolition of poverty on world scale, will stretch well into the next century, but in the highly developed countries it ought to be completed in this one.