Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-04T23:55:53.745Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Crime Victimization and Political Participation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 August 2012

REGINA BATESON
REGINA BATESON*
Affiliation:
Yale University
*
Regina Bateson is a Ph.D. candidate in political science at Yale University, 115 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 ([email protected]).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Crime victimization is an important cause of political participation. Analysis of survey data from five continents shows that individuals who report recent crime victimization participate in politics more than comparable nonvictims. Rather than becoming withdrawn or disempowered, crime victims tend to become more engaged in civic and political life. The effect of crime victimization is roughly equivalent to an additional five to ten years of education, meaning that crime victimization ranks among the most influential predictors of political participation. Prior research has shown that exposure to violence during some civil wars can result in increased political participation, but this article demonstrates that the effect of victimization extends to peacetime, to nonviolent as well as violent crimes, and across most of the world. At the same time, however, crime victimization is sometimes associated with dissatisfaction with democracy and support for authoritarianism, vigilantism, and harsh policing tactics, especially in Latin America.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 106 , Issue 3 , August 2012 , pp. 570 - 587
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Afrobarometer. 2011. Data: Round 4, 20-country Merged 2011. http://www.afrobarometer.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132&Itemid=80 (accessed June 1, 2012).Google Scholar
Alvazzi del Frate, Anna. 2007. “Victimization: An International Perspective.” In Victims of Crime, eds. Davis, R. C., Lurigio, A. J., and Herman, S.. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 233–52.Google Scholar
Americas Barometer by the Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP). 2010. www.LapopSurveys.org (accessed June 1, 2012).Google Scholar
Archibold, Randal C. 2011. “Violence Suffocated a Father's Poetry, but Not His Voice.” New York Times, May 14.Google Scholar
Asian Barometer. 2012. Surveys:Data Release (Wave 2). http://www.asianbarometer.org/newenglish/surveys/DataRelease2.htm (accessed June 1, 2012).Google Scholar
Barker, Vanessa. 2007. “The Politics of Pain: A Political Institutionalist Analysis of Crime Victims’ Moral Protests.” Law and Society Review 41 (3): 619–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnard, Anne. 2010. “A Killing That a Mother Won't Let Investigators Forget.” New York Times, May 29.Google Scholar
Barry, Dan. 1997. “In a Blaze of Attention, McCarthy Joins Congress.” New York Times, January 8.Google Scholar
Baylis, Thomas. 1978. “The Faces of Participation: A Comparative Perspective.” In Political Participation in Latin America, eds. Booth, J. A. and Seligson, M. A.. New York: Holmes and Meier, 34–42.Google Scholar
Bejarano, Cynthia L. 2002. “Las Super Madres de Latino America: Transforming Motherhood by Challenging Violence in Mexico, Argentina, and El Salvador.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 23 (1): 126–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellows, John, and Miguel, Edward. 2006. “War and Institutions: New Evidence from Sierra Leone.” American Economic Association Papers and Proceedings 96 (2): 394–99.Google Scholar
Bellows, John, and Miguel, Edward. 2009. “War and Local Collective Action in Sierra Leone.” Journal of Public Economics 93: 1144–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ben Lakhdar, Christian, and Dubois, Eric. 2006. “Climate and Electoral Turnout in France.” French Politics 4 (2): 137–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennion, Elizabeth A., and Roach, Laura A.. 2006. “Turning Sad into MADD: Grief and the Mobilization of Motherhood.” Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago.Google Scholar
Bermeo, Nancy. 1997. “Getting Mad or Going Mad? Citizens, Scarcity, and the Breakdown of Democracy in Interwar Europe.” CSD Working Papers. Center for the Study of Democracy, University of California at Irvine.Google Scholar
Bitencourt, Luís. 2007. “Crime and Violence: Challenges to Democracy in Brazil.” In Citizenship in Latin America, eds. Tulchin, J. and Ruthenburg, M.. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 171–86.Google Scholar
Blattman, Christopher. 2009. “From Violence to Voting: War and Political Participation in Uganda.” American Political Science Review 103 (2): 231–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, John A., and Seligson, Mitchell A.. 1978. “Images of Political Participation.” In Political Participation in Latin America, eds. Booth, J. A. and Seligson, M. A.. New York: Holmes and Meier, 3–33.Google Scholar
Brehm, John, and Rahn, Wendy. 1997. “Individual-level Evidence for the Causes and Consequences of Social Capital.” American Journal of Political Science 41 (3): 999–1023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briceño-León, Alberto Camardiel, and Ávila, Olga. 2002. “Violencia y actitudes de apoyo a la violencia en Caracas.” In Seguridad Ciudadana: ¿Espejismo o realidad? ed. Carrión, F.. Quito, Ecuador: FLACSO, Sede Ecuador, 205–33.Google Scholar
Burns, Nancy, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Verba, Sidney. 1997. “The Public Consequences of Private Inequality: Family Life and Citizen Participation.” American Political Science Review 91 (2): 373–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burns, Nancy, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Verba, Sidney. 2001. The Private Roots of Public Action: Gender, Equality, and Political Participation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burris, Scott. 2006. “From Security to Health.” In Democracy, Society, and the Governance of Security, eds. Wood, J. and Dupont, B.. New York: Cambridge University Press, 196–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bursik, Robert, and Grasmick, Harold G.. 1993. Neighborhoods and Crime: The Dimensions of Effective Community Control. New York: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Buvinic, Mayra, and Morrison, Andrew. 2000. “Living in a More Violent World.” Foreign Policy 118: 58–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buvinic, Mayra, Morrison, Andrew, and Shifter, Michael. 2002. “La violencia en América Latina y el Caribe.” In Seguridad Ciudadana: ¿Espejismo o realidad? ed. Carrión, F.. Quito, Ecuador: FLACSO, Sede Ecuador, 60–107.Google Scholar
Caldeira, Teresa P. R. 1996. “Crime and Individual Rights: Reframing the Question of Violence in Latin America.” In Constructing Democracy: Human Rights, Citizenship, and Society in Latin America, eds. Jelin, E. and Hershberg, E.. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 197–214.Google Scholar
Caldeira, Teresa P. R. 2000. City of Walls: Crime, Segregation, and Citizenship in São Paulo. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cárdia, Nancy. 2002. “The Impact of Exposure to Violence in Sao Paulo: Accepting Violence or Continuing Horror?” In Citizens of Fear: Urban Violence in Latin America, ed. Rotker, Susana, with Goldman, Katherine. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 152–86.Google Scholar
Carreras, Miguel. N.d. “The Impact of Criminal Violence on System Support in Latin America.” Latin American Research Review. Forthcoming.Google Scholar
Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation. 2009. “Why Does South Africa Have Such High Rates of Violent Crime? Supplement to the Final Report of the Study on the Violent Nature of Crime in South Africa.” Braamfontein, South Africa: CSVR.Google Scholar
Chaplin, Rupert, Flatley, John, and Smith, Kevin, eds. 2011. “Crime in England and Wales 2010/11: Findings from the British Crime Survey and Police Recorded Crime, 2nd Edition.” In Home Office Statistical Bulletin. London: Home Office.Google Scholar
Cohen, Alexander. 2012. “Sweating the Vote: Heat and Abstention in the U.S. House of Representatives.” PS: Political Science and Politics 45 (1): 74–77.Google Scholar
Cohn, Ellen G. 1990. “Weather and Crime.” British Journal of Criminology 30 (1): 51–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2010. “Crime Victims March in Bloem.” News24, May 19. http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Crime-victims-march-in-Bloem-20100519 (accessed June 14, 2011).Google Scholar
Cruz, José Miguel. 2000. “Violencia, Democracia, y Cultura Política.” Nueva Sociedad 167: 132–46.Google Scholar
Demombynes, Gabriel. 2009. “The Effect of Crime Victimization on Attitudes towards Criminal Justice in Latin America.” Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Latin American and Caribbean Economic Association, Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
Ditton, J., Farrall, S., Bannister, J., Gilchrist, E., and Pease, K.. 1999. “Reactions to Victimisation: Why Has Anger Been Ignored?” Crime Prevention and Community Safety: An International Journal 1 (3): 37–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douty, Christopher M. 1972. “Disasters and Charity: Some Aspects of Cooperative Economic Behavior.” American Economic Review 62 (4): 580–90.Google Scholar
Elias, Robert. 1986. The Politics of Victimization: Victims, Victimology, and Human Rights. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fernandez, Kenneth E., and Kuenzi, Michele. 2010. “Crime and Support for Democracy in Africa and Latin America.” Political Studies 58 (3): 450–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedom House. 2012. Country Ratings and Status, FIW 1973–2011. http://www.freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world (accessed February 18, 2012).Google Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., and Green, Donald P.. 2000. “The Effects of Canvassing, Telephone Calls, and Direct Mail on Voter Turnout: A Field Experiment.” American Political Science Review 94 (3): 653–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., Green, Donald P., and Larimer, Christopher W.. 2008. “Social Pressure and Voter Turnout: Evidence from a Large-scale Field Experiment.” American Political Science Review 102 (1): 33–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., Huber, Gregory A., Doherty, David, Raso, Connor, and Ha, Shang E.. 2011. “Personality Traits and Participation in Political Processes.” Journal of Politics 74 (3): 692–706.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilligan, Michael J., Pasquale, Benjamin J., and Samii, Cyrus D.. 2011. “Civil War and Social Capital: Behavioral-game Evidence from Nepal.” New York University. Unpublished manuscript. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1911969 (accessed June 1, 2012).Google Scholar
Gomez, Brad T., Hansford, Thomas G., and Krause, George A.. 2007. “The Republicans Should Pray for Rain: Weather, Turnout, and Voting in U.S. Presidential Elections.” Journal of Politics 69 (3): 649–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gotkine, Elliot. 2004. “Argentine Crime Sparks Protests.” BBC News, April 2.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, Michael R. 1986. “Substantive Contributions of Victimization Surveys.” Crime and Justice 7: 251–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Donald P., Gerber, Alan S., and Nickerson, David W.. 2003. “Getting Out the Vote in Local Elections: Results from Six Door-to-door Canvassing Experiments.” Journal of Politics 65 (4): 1083–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, Martin S., and Ruback, R. Barry. 1992. After the Crime: Victim Decision Making. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartung, Harald. 2000. “Eurobarometer 54.1: Building Europe and the European Union: The European Parliament, Public Safety, and Defense Policy, November–December 2000.” [Computer file]. ICPSR03209-v4. Cologne, Germany/Ann Arbor, MI: Zentralarchiv fur Empirische Sozialforschung/Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hindelang, Michael J., Gottfredson, Michael R., and Garofalo, James. 1978. Victims of Personal Crime: An Empirical Foundation for a Theory of Personal Victimization. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing.Google Scholar
Hipp, John R., Bauer, Daniel J., Curran, Patrick J., and Bollen, Kenneth A.. 2004. “Crimes of Opportunity or Crimes of Emotion? Testing Two Explanations for Seasonal Change in Crime.” Social Forces 82 (4): 1333–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ho, D., Imai, K., King, G., and Stuart, E. A.. 2007a. “Matching as Nonparametric Preprocessing for Reducing Model Dependence in Parametric Causal Inference.” Political Analysis 15 (3): 199–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ho, Daniel, Imai, Kosuke, King, Gary, and Stuart, Elizabeth. 2007b. Matchit: Nonparametric Preprocessing for Parametric Causal Inference. http://gking.harvard.edu/matchit/ (accessed June 1, 2012).Google Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, King, Gary, and Lau, Olivia. 2008. “Toward a Common Framework for Statistical Analysis and Development.” Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics 17 (4): 892–913.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, King, Gary, and Lau, Olivia. 2009. Zelig: Everyone's Statistical Software. http://gking.harvard.edu/zelig (accessed June 1, 2012).Google Scholar
Inglehart, Ronald, and Welzel, Christian. 2003. “Political Culture and Democracy: Analyzing Cross-level Linkages.” Comparative Politics 36 (1): 61–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacob, Brian, Lefgren, Lars, and Moretti, Enrico. 2004. “The Dynamics of Criminal Behavior: Evidence from Weather Shocks.” NBER Working Paper 10739. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, M. Kent. 1999. “Political Responses to Pain and Loss: Presidential Address, American Political Science Association, 1998.” American Political Science Review 93 (1): 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, M. Kent, and Andersen, Ellen Ann. 1996. “Support for Confrontational Tactics among AIDS Activists: A Study of Intra-movement Divisions.” American Journal of Political Science 40 (2): 311–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, M. Kent, and Andersen, Ellen Ann. 2003. “The Importance of Social and Political Context: The Case of AIDS Activism.” Political Behavior 25 (2): 177–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kage, Rieko. 2011. Civic Engagement in Postwar Japan: The Revival of a Defeated Society. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kern, Holger Lutz. 2010. “The Political Consequences of Transitions out of Marriage in Great Britain.” Electoral Studies 29: 249–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilpatrick, Dean G., and Acierno, Ron. 2003. “Mental Health Needs of Crime Victims: Epidemiology and Outcomes.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 16 (2): 119–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, Gary, Tomz, Michael, and Wittenberg, Jason. 2000. “Making the Most of Statistical Analyses: Improving Interpretation and Presentation.” American Journal of Political Science 44: 341–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuenzi, Michele. 2006. “Crime, Security, and Support for Democracy in Africa.” Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago.Google Scholar
LaFree, Gary, and Tseloni, Andromachi. 2006. “Democracy and Crime: A Multilevel Analysis of Homicide Trends in Forty-four Countries, 1950–2000.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 605: 26–49.Google Scholar
Latinobarómetro Corporation. 2011. Latinobarómetro: Opinión Pública Latinoamericana. Download Data Files. http://www.latinobarometro.org/latino/LATDatosDwn.jsp (accessed June 1, 2012).Google Scholar
Loose, Krista, and Jae, David. 2011. “Explaining Unequal Participation: The Differential Effects of Winter Weather on Voter Turnout.” MIT Political Science Department Research Paper 2011-13. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackie, J. L. 1965. “Causes and Conditions.” American Philosophical Quarterly 2 (4): 245–64.Google Scholar
Macmillan, Ross. 2001. “Violence and the Life Course: The Consequences of Victimization for Personal and Social Development.” Annual Review of Sociology 27: 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malone, M. F. T. 2010. “Does Dirty Harry Have the Answer? Citizen Support for the Rule of Law in Central America.” Public Integrity 13 (1): 59–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marks, Monique, and Goldsmith, Andrew. 2006. “The State, the People, and Democratic Policing: The Case of South Africa.” In Democracy, Society, and the Governance of Security, eds. Wood, J. and Dupont, B.. New York: Cambridge University Press, 139–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marks, Peter. 1994. “From One Woman's Tragedy: The Making of an Advocate.” New York Times, August 18.Google Scholar
Matsui, Shigenori. 2011. “Justice for the Accused or Justice for Victims? The Protection of Victims’ Rights in Japan.” Asian–Pacific Law and Policy Journal 13 (1): 54–95.Google Scholar
McMahon, Colin. 2005. “Grief Feeds Struggle for Justice.” Chicago Tribune, January 16.Google Scholar
Melossi, Dario, and Selmini, Rossella. 2000. “Social Conflict and the Microphysics of Crime: The Experience of the Emilia–Romagna Città Sicure Project.” In Crime, Risk, and Insecurity: Law and Order in Everyday Life and Political Discourse, eds. Hope, T. and Sparks, R.. London: Routledge, 146–65.Google Scholar
Miguel, Edward, Satyanath, Shanker, and Sergenti, Ernest. 2004. “Economic Shocks and Civil Conflict: An Instrumental Variables Approach.” Journal of Political Economy 112 (4): 725–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Ted R., Cohen, Mark A., and Wiersema, Brian. 1996. Victim Costs and Consequences: A New Look. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.Google Scholar
Miroff, Nick. 2011. “A Grim Tally, Driven by Drugs.” Washington Post, December 27.Google Scholar
Mondak, Jeffery J., Hibbing, Matthew V., Canache, Damarys, Seligson, Mitchell A., and Anderson, Mary R.. 2010. “Personality and Civic Engagement: An Integrative Framework for the Study of Trait Effects on Political Behavior.” American Political Science Review 104 (1): 85–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moorhead, Joanna. 2011. “Javier Sicilia: ‘I have no more poetry in me.’” The Guardian, October 28.Google Scholar
Morgenstern, Scott, and Zechmeister, Elizabeth. 2001. “Better the Devil You Know Than the Saint You Don't? Risk Propensity and Vote Choice in Mexico.” Journal of Politics 63 (1): 93–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nickerson, David W. 2006. “Volunteer Phone Calls Can Increase Turnout.” American Politics Research 34 (3): 271–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norris, Fran H., and Kaniasty, Krzysztof. 1994. “Psychological Distress Following Criminal Victimization in the General Population: Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, and Prospective Analyses.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 62 (1): 111–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Padgett, Tim. 2011. “Why I Protest: Javier Sicilia of Mexico.” Time, December 14.Google Scholar
Peltzer, K. 2000. “Trauma Symptom Correlates of Criminal Victimization in an Urban Community Sample.” Journal of Psychology in Africa, South of the Sahara, the Caribbean, and Afro-Latin America 10: 49–62.Google Scholar
Pérez, Orlando J. 2003. “Democratic Legitimacy and Public Insecurity: Crime and Democracy in El Salvador and Guatemala.” Political Science Quarterly 118 (4): 627–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plutzer, Eric. 2002. “Becoming a Habitual Voter: Inertia, Resources, and Growth in Young Adulthood.” American Political Science Review 96 (1): 41–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, Daniel N., and Kramon, Eric. 2011. “Who Benefits from Distributive Politics? How the Outcome One Studies Affects the Answer One Gets.” Presented at Yale University Comparative Politics Workshop, New Haven, CT.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powdthavee, Nattavudh. 2005. “Unhappiness and Crime: Evidence from South Africa.”Economica 72 (287): 531–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rico, José María. 2003. “Seguridad Ciudadana en América Latina: Marco Teórico y Conceptual.” In Entre el Crimen y el Castigo: Seguridad Ciudadana y Control Democrático en América Latina y el Caribe, ed. Bobea, L.. Caracas, Venezuela: Editorial Nueva Sociedad, 33–49.Google Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J. 1982. “Economic Adversity and Voter Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 26 (1): 25–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Hansen, John Mark. 1993. Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America. New York: Macmillan Publishing.Google Scholar
Rozowsky, Debbi. 2002. Surviving Crime. Cape Town: Anderson Publishing.Google Scholar
Sandell, Julianna, and Plutzer, Eric. 2005. “Families, Divorce, and Voter Turnout in the U.S.” Political Behavior 27 (2): 133–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Verba, Sidney. 1979 . Injury to Insult: Unemployment, Class, and Political Response. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Schuessler, Alexander A. 2000a. A Logic of Expressive Choice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Schuessler, Alexander A. 2000b. “Expressive Voting.” Rationality and Society 12 (1): 87–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sekhon, Jasjeet S. 2009. “Opiates for the Matches: Matching Methods for Causal Inference.” Annual Review of Political Science 12: 487–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seligson, Mitchell A., and Booth, John A.. 1976. “Political Participation in Latin America: An Agenda for Research.” Latin American Research Review 11 (3): 95–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shewfelt, Stephen Dale. 2009. “Legacies of War: Social and Political Life after Wartime Trauma.” Ph.D. diss. Yale University.Google Scholar
Sicilia, Javier. 2011. “Carta Abierta a Políticos y Criminales.” Proceso, April 3.Google Scholar
Sinclair, Betsy, Hall, Thad E., and Alvarez, R. Michael. 2011. “Flooding the Vote: Hurricane Katrina and Voter Participation in New Orleans.” American Politics Research 39 (5): 921–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skogan, Wesley G. 1990. Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American Neighborhoods. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Stanko, Elizabeth A. 2000. “Victims R Us: The Life History of ‘Fear of Crime’ and the Politicisation of Violence.” In Crime, Risk, and Insecurity: Law and Order in Everyday Life and Political Discourse, eds. Hope, T. and Sparks, R.. London: Routledge, 13–30.Google Scholar
Stone, Deborah A. 1989. “Causal Stories and the Formation of Policy Agendas.” Political Science Quarterly 104 (2): 281–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tedeschi, R. G., and Calhoun, L. G.. 1996. “The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the Positive Legacy of Trauma.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 9 (3): 455–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tedeschi, R. G., and Calhoun, L. G.. 2004. “Posttraumatic Growth: Conceptual Foundations and Empirical Evidence.” Psychological Inquiry 15 (1): 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, Ginger. 2004. “Hundreds of Thousands in Mexico March against Crime.” New York Times, June 28.Google Scholar
Tomz, Michael, Wittenberg, Jason, and King, Gary. 2001. CLARIFY: Software for Interpreting and Presenting Statistical Results, Version 2.0. http://gking.harvard.edu/clarify (accessed June 9, 2011).Google Scholar
Truman, Jennifer L, and Rand, Michael R.. 2010. “National Crime Victimization Survey: Criminal Victimization, 2009.” In Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin. Washington, DC: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice.Google Scholar
Tulchin, Joseph, and Fagan, Graig. 2003. “Perfil Actual de la Seguridad Ciudadana e Impacto en la Gobernabilidad Democrática: Aportes desde Latinoamérica.” In Entre el Crimen y el Castigo: Seguridad Ciudadana y Control Democrático en América Latina y el Caribe, ed. Bobea, L.. Caracas, Venezuela: Editorial Nueva Sociedad, 13–29.Google Scholar
Tulchin, Joseph, and Ruthenburg, Meg. 2006. “Toward a Society under Law.” In Toward a Society under Law: Citizens and Their Police in Latin America, eds. Tulchin, J. and Ruthenburg, M.. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1–11.Google Scholar
UNDOC and World Bank. 2007. “Crime, Violence, and Development: Trends, Costs, and Policy Options in the Caribbean: A Joint Report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the Latin America and Caribbean Region of the World Bank.” Report 37820. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
van Dijk, Jan J. M., Mayhew, Pat, and Killias, Martin. 1990. Experiences of Crime across the World: Key Findings from the 1989 International Crime Survey. Deventer, the Netherlands: Kluwer Law and Taxation.Google Scholar
van Dijk, Jan, van Kesteren, John, and Smit, Paul. 2007. Criminal Victimisation in International Perspective: Key findings from the 2004–2005 ICVS and EU ICS. The Hague: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.Google Scholar
Van Wilsem, Johan, Wittebrood, Karin, and de Graaf, Nan Dirk. 2006. “Socieconomic Dynamics of Neighborhoods and the Risk of Crime Victimization: A Study of Improving, Declining, and Stable Areas in the Netherlands.” Social Problems 53 (2): 226–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Burns, Nancy, and Schlozman, Kay Lehman. 1997. “Knowing and Caring about Politics: Gender and Political Engagement.” Journal of Politics 59 (4): 1051–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verba, Sidney, and Nie, Norman H.. 1972. Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Nie, Norman H., and Kim, Jae-on. 1978. Participation and Political Equality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Brady, Henry E.. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, Brady, Henry E., and Nie, Norman H.. 1993. “Citizen Activity: Who Participates? What Do They Say?” American Political Science Review 87 (2): 303–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Victim Services. 1998. “From Pain to Power: Crime Victims Take Action.” Washington, DC: Office for Victims of Crimes, U.S Department of Justice.Google Scholar
von Hentig, Hans. 1948. The Criminal and His Victim: Studies in the Sociobiology of Crime. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Voors, Maarten J., Nillesen, Eleonora E. M., Verwimp, Philip, Bulte, Erwin H., Lensink, Robert, and van Soest, Daan P.. 2012. “Violent Conflict and Behavior: A Field Experiment in Burundi.” American Economic Review 102 (2): 941–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walklate, Sandra. 2007. Imagining the Victim of Crime. Berkshire, UK: Open University Press.Google Scholar
Wartofsky, Alona. 1996. “The March of Empty Shoes: Gun Control Advocates Display their Memories.” Washington Post, October 1.Google Scholar
Wolfinger, Raymond E., and Rosenstone, Steven J.. 1980. Who Votes? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Wuffle, A., Brians, Craig Leonard, and Coulter, Kristine. 2012. “Take the Temperature: Implications for Adoption of Election Day Registration, State-level Voter Turnout, and Life Expectancy.” PS: Political Science and Politics 45 (1): 78–82.Google Scholar
Zvekic, Ugljesa, and del Frate, Anna Alvazzi, eds. 1995. Criminal Victimisation in the Developing World. Rome: United Nations International Crime and Justice Research Institute.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Bateson Supplementary Material

Appendix

Download Bateson Supplementary Material(PDF)
PDF 2.3 MB
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.