Article contents
Quality Improvement in Community-Based, Long-Term Care: Theory and Reality
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 February 2021
Extract
Community-based, long-term care has become an increasingly popular and needed service for the aged and disabled populations in recent years. These services witnessed a major expansion in 1981 when Congress created the Home and Community-Based Waiver authority for the Medicaid program. Currently, all states offer some complement of community-based, long-term care services to their elderly and disabled populations and nearly all states have Medicaid Home and Community-Based Services waivers which extend these services to their Medicaid eligible clients.
An ever increasing proportion of the population is in need of community-based, long-term care services. Between nine and eleven million Americans of all ages are chronically disabled and require some help with tasks of daily living. In 1990, thirty percent of the elderly with at least one impaired activity of daily living used a community-based, long-term care service. Not surprisingly, expenditures for community-based, long-term care have increased.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics and Boston University 1994
References
1 Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981, 42 U.S.C. § 1396a(a)(10)(A)(ii)(VI), 1396n(c), (d), (e) (1988 & Supp.); see S., Laudicina see B., Burwell, A Profile of Medicaid Home and Community-Based Care Waivers, 1985: Findings of a National Survey, 13 J. Health Pol., Pol'y & L. 525 (1988)Google Scholar.
2 Medicare & Medicaid Guide (CCH) 1 14,625 (1988).
3 U.S. Bipartisan Commission on Comprehensive Health Care, 101ST Cong., 2D Sess., A Call for Action 89 (Comm. Print 1990) [hereinafter A Call for Action].
4 See infra notes 19-23 and accompanying text.
5 U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging, Acing America — Trends and Projections 8 & Chart 5-12 (1991 Edition) [hereinafter Aging America] .
6 National Association For Home Care, Basic Statistics About Home Care 1993 4 (1993) (Unpublished manuscript citing unpublished data of the Health Care Financing Administration, Division of Medicaid Statistics) [hereinafter National Association for Home Care],
7 Id.
8 Aging America, supra note 5, at 8, 10.
9 Id. at 144.
10 See H.R. 3600, Health Security Act, 103d Cong., 2d Sess. § 2101-09 (1993); The President's Health Care Reform Proposal, Preliminary Working Group Draft, in Medicare & Medicaid Guide (CCH), App. A, at A55-A61 1993; A Call for Action, supra note 3.
11 Kane, Rosalie A. & Kane, Robert L., Long-Term Care: Principles, Programs, and Policies 88 (1987)Google Scholar [hereinafter Kane & Kane, Principles, Programs and Policies].
12 Robert, Applebaum & Paul, Phillips, Assuring the Quality of In-Home Care: The “Other” Challenge for Long-Term Care, 30 Gerontologist 444, 449 (1990)Google Scholar.
13 See infra part III.C.
14 42 U.S.C. §§ 1396a(a) (10) (A) (ii) (VI), 1396n(c)-(e) (1988 & Supp. 1993); State Medicaid Manual, §§ 4440-46, Transmittal No. 37 (Sept. 1988), reprinted in Medicare and Medicaid Guide (CCH) 1 14,625 (Jan. 1992 & July 1993).
15 Id. §§ 1397-1397f.
16 Id. §§ 3026(a)(l)-(2).
17 Debra J. Lipson & Elizabeth Donohoe, State Financing of Long-term Care Services for the Elderly (1988); Diane Justice Et al., State Long Term Care Reform: Development of Community Care Systems in Six States (1988).
18 42 U.S.C. § 1396,3001(4).
19 42 U.S.C. §§3021(1)(D), (2)(A).
20 See Justice et al., supra note 17, at 79-87.
21 Kane & Kane, Principles, Procrams and Policies, supra note 11.
22 Sidney, Katz et al., Studies of Illness in the Aged: The Index ofADL—A Standardized Measure of Biological and Psychological Function, 185 JAMA 914 (1963)Google Scholar; Sidney, Katz et al., Progress in the Development of the Index of ADL, 10 Gerontologist 20 (1970)Google Scholar.
23 See Kane & Kane, Principles, Programs and Poucies, supra note 11, at 4.
24 For other versions of assessments using IADLs see M., Lawton et al., A Research and Service Oriented Multilevel Assessment Instrument, 37 J. Gerontolocy 91 (1982)Google Scholar; Center for the Study of Acing and Human Development, Multidimensional Functional Assessment: The Oars Methodology (1978); Eric Pfeiffer, Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development, Multidimensional Functional Assessments: The Oars Methodology (1975).
25 M., Powell Lawton & Brody, Elaine M., Assessment of Older People: Self-Maintaining and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living, 9 Gerontologist 179 (1969)Google Scholar; Lawton et al., supra note 24; Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development, supra note 24; Pfeiffer, supra note 24.
26 National Association for Home Care, supra note 6, at 4.
27 Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Department of Health and Human Servs., Review of State Quality Assurance Programs for Home Care (1989) [Hereinafter Review of State Quality Assurance Programs for Home Care] .
28 See supra note 19 and accompanying text.
29 Review of State Quality Assurance Programs for Home Care, supra note 27.
30 Johnson, Sandra H., Quality-Control Regulation of Home Health Care, 26 Hous. L. Rev. 901, 907 n.32, 933-36 (1989)Google Scholar (providing detailed description and analysis of state licensure of home health agencies).
31 Id. at 934.
32 Id. at 922-23.
33 42 U.S.C. § 1395x(o) (1988); 42 C.F.R. § 484 (1993); see Hankwitz, Paul E., Quality Assurance in Home Care, 7 Geriatric Home Care 847, 852-53 (1991)Google Scholar.
34 National League of Nursing, Accreditation of Home Health Agencies and Community Nursing Services (1976); National League for Nursing (NLN), Accreditation Criteria, Standards, and Substantiating Evidences (1987); see Johnson , supra note 30, at 906.
35 Telephone Interview with Mr. Harry Wade, Director of Public Information Services, National League of Nursing (Jan. 11, 1994).
36 National Homecaring Association, Interpretation of Standards (1990); National Homecaring Council (NHCC), Homemaker-Home Health AID Services (1988).
37 Telephone interview with Maryanne Brown, National HomeCaring Council, Foundation for Hospice and Homecare (Feb. 17, 1994).
38 Joint Commission on the Accreditation of HealthCare Organizations, Standards for the Accreditation of Home Care (1988); see Johnson, supra note 30, at 905-06, 931.
39 Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Hospitals, Accreditation Manual for Hospitals 47 (1978) as updated Joint Commission ON The Accreditation of HealthCare Organizations (JCAHO), Standards for the Accreditation of Hospitals (1993); see Johnson, supra note 30, at 905, n.20.
40 See Joint Commission on the Accreditation of HealthCare Organizations (JCAHO), Standards for the Accreditation of Home Care (1988) as updated Joint Commission on the Accreditation of HealthCare Organizations (JCAHO), Standards for the Accreditation of Home Care (1991).
41 Deemed Status Option Now Available for Joint Commission Accredited Home Health Agencies, in Joint Commission Bulletin: Home Care: An Update on the Joint Commission'S Accreditation Program, Summer 1993, at 2.
42 Medicare and Medicaid Programs; Recognition of the Community Health Accreditation Program Standards for Home Care Organizations, 57 Fed. Reg. 22,773 (May 29, 1992) (final notice).
43 Medicare Program: Recognition of the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Heatlhcare Organizations Standards for Home Care Organizations, 58 Fed. Reg. 35,007 (June 30, 1993) (final notice).
44 See, e.g., Joint Commission ON Accreditation of HealthCare Organizations, Quality Improvement in Home Care (1993); Joint Commission ON Accreditation of HealthCare Organizations, Quality Assurance in Home Care Organizations and Hospice Programs (1990).
45 See supra notes 31-41 and accompanying text.
45 Johnson, supra note 30, at 935-36.
47 See supra note 19 and accompanying text.
48 See Rosalie A. Kane et al., Quality of Home Care: Concept and Measurement (1991) [hereinafter Kane et al., Concept and Measurement] ; Robert E. Schlenker et al., Future Research on the Quauty of Long-Term Care Services in Community-Based and Custodial Settings (1989); Applebaum & Phillips, supra note 12; see also U.S. Dep‘t of Health and Human Servs., Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning & Evaluation, Home Care Quality: Issues and Accountability (1988).
49 Kan'e et al., Concept and Measurement, supra note 48; Patricia A. Riley, Quality Assurance in Home Care (1989); Schlenker Et al., supra note 48.
50 Kane Et al, Concept and Measurement, supra note 48, at 22.
51 Id. at 36.
52 Id.
53 Schlenker et al., supra note 48, at vii.
54 U.S. Dep't of Health and Human Servs., Health Care Financing Administration, Evaluation of Community-Oriented Long-Term Care Demonstration Projects (1987); see also Catherine Hawes Et al., The Case For a Continuum of Long-term Care Services: Lessons from the Community-Based Care Demonstrations (1988); Hughes, Susan L., Apples and Oranges? A Review of Evaluations of Community-Based Long-Term Care, 20 Health Services Res. 461 (1985)Google Scholar; Peter, Kemper et al., Community Care Demonstrations: What Have We Learned? 8 Health Care Fin. Rev. 87 (1987)Google Scholar; Peter, Kemper, The Evaluation of the National Long Term Care Demonstration: Overview of the Findings, 23 Health Services Research 161 (1988)Google Scholar; Weissert, William G. et al., The Past and Future ofHome-and Community-Based Long-Term Care, 66 Milbank Q. 309 (1988).Google Scholar
55 See supra note 54 and accompanying text.
56 Id.
57 Robert Applebaum et al., Monitoring in-Home Supportive Services: A Report on Ohio's Quality Assurance Demonstration (1981); Phillips, Paul D. et al., Quality Assurance Strategies for Home-Delivered Long-Term Care, 15 Quality Rev. Bull. 156 (1989)Google Scholar [hereinafter Phillips et al., Quality Assurance Strategies]; Phillips, Paul D. et al., Assuring the Quality of Home-Delivered Long-Term Care: The Ohio Quality Assurance Project, 10 Home Health Care Services Q. 45 (1990).Google Scholar
58 New York State Office for the Aging, Design and Implementation of a Quality Assurance Model for In-Home Services: Final Report (1991); Bureau on Aging, DRV. Community Servs., Wisconsin Dep't Health & Soc. Servs., Desicning a Process for Quality Improvement Applying Prtvate Industry Principles of Quality to In-Home Services for Older Persons: Final Report (1992).
59 See discussion infra IV.B.
60 Avedis Donabedian, The Criteria and Standards of Quality (1982) [hereinafter Donabedian, Criteria and Standards] ; Avedis Donabedian, The Definition of Quality and Approaches to its Assessment (1980) [hereinafter Donabedian, The Definition of Quality]; Avedis, Donabedian, Criteria and Standards for Quality Assessment and Monitoring, 12 Quality Rev. Bull. 99 (1986)Google Scholar [hereinafter Donabedian, Criteria and Standards for Quality Assessment]; Avedis, Donabedian, Evaluating the Quality of Medical Care, 44 Milbank Q., 166 (1966)Google Scholar.
61 Donabedian, The Definition of Quality, supra note 60, at 4-6.
62 Jost, Timothy S., The Necessary and Proper Role of Regulation to Assure the Quality of Health Care, 25 Hous. L. Rev. 525, 533 (1989)Google Scholar; see also Donabedian, The Definition of Quality, supra note 60, at 4-6.
63 Donabedian, The Definition of Quality, supra note 60, at 4, 79-84; see also Donabedian, Criteria and Standards, supra note 60, at 45.
64 Jost, supra note 62, at 530.
65 Id. at 532-35.
66 Donabedian, Criteria and Standards, supra note 60, at 8-9; Donabedian, Criteria and Standards for Quality Assessment, supra note 60, at 99; see also Jost, supra note 62, at 533.
67 Donabedian, Criteria and Standards for Quality Assessment, supra note 60, at 81.
68 Id.; Jost, supra note 62, at 533.
69 Donabedian, Criteria and Standards, supra note 60, at 6, 21-30; Donabedian, The Definition of Quality, supra note 60, at 79-84.
70 Donabedian, The Definition of Quality, supra note 60, at 79-80; Jost, supra note 62, at 533.
71 Jost, supra note 62, at 533.
72 Donabedian, The Definition of Quality, supra note 60, at 82-83; Jost, supra note 62, at 534.
73 Jost, supra note 62, at 534. See, e.g., Komaroff, Anthony L., Quality Assurance in 1984, 23 Med. Care 723, 724-26 (1985)Google Scholar.
74 Donabedian, The Definition of Quality, supra note 60, at 81-84; Jost, supra note 62, at 533.
75 Jost, supra note 62, at 533-34.
76 Id. at 534.
77 Brook, Robert H. & Lohr, Kathleen N., Efficacy, Effectiveness, Variations, and Quality: Boundary Crossing Research, 23 Med. Care 710 (1985)Google Scholar; Brook, Robert H. & Lohr, Kathleen N., Monitoring Quality of Care in the Medicare Program, 258 JAMA 3138 (1987)Google Scholar; Eddy, David M. & John, Billings, The Quality of Medical Evidence: Implications for Quality of Care, Health Aff., Spring 1988, at 19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ellwood, Paul M., Shattuck Lecture — Outcomes Management: A Technology of Patient Experience, 318 New Enc. J. Med. 1549 (1988)Google Scholar; Mehlman, Maxwell J., Assuring the Quality of Medical Care: The Impact of Outcome Measurement and Practice Standards, 18 L., Med. & Health Care 328, 371-75 (1990)Google Scholar; Tarlov, Alvin R. et al., The Medical Outcomes Study: An Application of Methods for Monitoring the Results of Medical Care, 262 JAMA 925 (1989)Google Scholar; see also Furrow, Barry R., The Changing Role of the Law in Promoting Quality in Health Care: From Sanctioning Outlaws to Managing Outcomes, 26 Hous. L. Rev. 147 (1989)Google Scholar.
78 Roper, William L. et al., Effectiveness in Health Care: An Initiative to Evaluate and Improve Medical Practice, 319 New Eng. J. Med. 1197 (1988)Google Scholar; Roper, William L. & Hackbarth, Glenn M., HCFA's Agenda for Promoting High-Quality Care, Health Aff., Spring 1988, at 91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
79 Schroeder, Steven A., Outcome Assessment 70 Years Later: Are We Ready?, 316 New Eng. J. Med. 160 (1987)Google Scholar.
80 Donabedian, Criteria and Standards, supra note 60, at 106-09, 112-15; Jost, supra note 62, at 534.
81 Jost, supra note 62, at 534.
82 See infra note 97 and accompanying text.
83 William E. Deming, Out of Crisis (1986) [Hereinafter Deminc, Out of Crisis] Joseph Juran, Managerial Breakthrough: A New Concept of the Manager's Job (1964); Joseph Juran, Juran on Leadership for Quality: An Executive Handbook (1989).
84 See W. A. Shewhart, Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Products (1931).
85 See sources cited supra note 83.
86 W. Edward Deming, The New Economics 102-03 (1993) [hereinafter Deming, New Economics].
87 Deming, Out of Crisis, supra note 83, at 133-34; Glenn, Laffel & David, Blumenthal, The Case for Using Industrial Quality Control Management Science in Health Care Organizations, 262 JAMA 2869, 2870 (1989).Google Scholar
88 Deminc, New Economics, supra note 86, at 102-03, 180; Deminc, OUT of Crisis, supra note 83, at 133-34, 313; Henry R. Neave, The Deminc Dimension 77.
89 Deminc, Out of Crisis, supra note 83, at 133-34; Deminc, New Economics, supra note 86, at 7-8,145, 181-87.
90 Deminc, Out of Crisis, supra note 83, at 133-34, 314; John Mcconnell, Safer than a Known Way 137.
91 See Donald M. Berwick Et. al., Curing Health Care: New Strategies for Quality Improvement (1990); Berwick, Donald M., Continuous Improvement as an Ideal in Health Care, 320 New Eng. J. Med. 53, 53–56 (1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berwick, Donald M., Controlling Variation in Health Care: A Consultation from Walter Shewhart, 29 Med. Care 1212, 1214 (1991)Google Scholar; Laffel & Blumenthal, supra note 87, at 2870.
92 See Joint Commission ON Accreditation of HealthCare Organizations, Cornerstones of Health Care in the Nineties: Forging a Framework of Excellence (1991) (Proceedings of Conference on Quality of Care); Joint Commission on Accreditation of HealthCare Organizations, An Introduction to Quality Improvement in Health Care (1991); Dennis S., O'Leary, Agenda for Change Fosters CQI Concepts, 2 J. Commission Perspective 3 (1992)Google Scholar.
93 Ellen Marszalek-Gaucher & CofFEY, RICHARD J., Transforming HealthCare Organizations: How to Achieve and Sustain Organizational Excellence 98-118 (1990).Google Scholar
94 Deminc, Out of Crisis, supra note 83, at 177-81; Mcconnell, supra note 90, at 23.
95 See supra notes 19-21 and accompanying text.
96 Kane, Rosalie A. & Kane, Robert L., Long-Term Care: Variations on a Quality Assurance Theme, 25 Inquiry 132, 133 (1988)Google Scholar [hereinafter Kane & Kane, Long-Term Care].
97 Id. at 132-34.
98 Id. at 132.
99 Kane Et. al., Concept and Measurement, supra note 48, at 22.
100 Id. at 36.
101 Kane & Kane, Long-term Care, supra note 96, at 133-34.
102 Id. at 133.
103 Id. at 134.
104 Kane Et. al., Concept and Measurement, supra note 48, at 36.
105 Id. at 132.
106 Id. at 133.
107 Id.
108 Ind. Code Ann. § 12-10-9 (West 1994).
109 See supra notes 100, 110 and accompanying text.
110 Id.; see supra notes 100-01 and accompanying text.
111 Christianson, Jon B., Organizing and Delivering Case Management Services: Lessons from the National Long Term Care Channeling Demonstration, 9 Home Health Care Servs. Q. 7 (1988)Google Scholar; Peter, Kemper, Case Management Agency Systems of Administering Long-Term Care: Evidence from the Channeling Demonstration, 30 Gerontologist 817 (1990)Google Scholar.
112 Weissart, William G., A New Policy Agenda for Home Care, Health Aff., Summer 1991, at 67.Google Scholar
113 See Kane & Kane, Long-Term Care, supra note 96, at 132.
114 See Kane Et al, Concept and Measurement, supra note 48; Applebaum & Phillips, supra note 12; Schlenker Et al., supra note 48.
115 Jack, Rothman, A Model of Case Management: Toward Empirically Based Practice, 36 Soc. Work 520 (1991)Google Scholar.
116 Applebaum & Phillips, supra note 12.
117 See supra note 100 and accompanying text.
118 See, e.g., Kane Et al, Concept and Measurement, supra note 48; Catherine Hawes & Rosalie A. Kane, Issues Related to Assuring Quality in Home Health Care, in Advances in Long-term Care (P. Katz et al. eds., 1991); Applebaum & Phillips, supra note 12; Louise Woerner & Jennifer Phillips, Quality Assurance: Client Perspectives on Quality Care, Caring, June 1989, at 47.
119 See supra notes 106-07 and accompanying text.
120 American Telephone & Telegraph, Statistical Quality Control Handbook 12 (1984)Google Scholar.
121 EVANS, JAMES R., Statistical Process Control for Quality Improvement 28 (1991)Google Scholar.
122 Id.
123 Williams, Stephen J. & Torens, Paul R., Introduction to Health Services (1993)Google Scholar; Every, Nathan R. et al, The Association Between OnSite Cardiac Catheterization Facilities and the Use of Coronary Angiography After Acute Myocardial Infarction, 329 New Eng. J. Med. 346 (1993)Google Scholar; Brook, Robert H. et al., Predicting the Appropriate Use of Carotid Endarterectomy, Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, and Coronary Angiography, 323 New Eng. J. Med. 1173 (1990)Google Scholar.
124 See supra note 51 and accompanying text.
125 See supra note 95 and accompanying text.
126 Phillips et al., Quality Assurance Strategies, supra note 57.
127 Deming, Out of Crisis, supra note 83, at 49.
- 5
- Cited by