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Environment and Public Health in a Time of Plague
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 January 2021
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The environment and public health goals hold a common value of healthy populations. The threat of bioterrorism requires a partnership of both, building upon the long history of the link between public health and the environment. This existing relationship is key to an effective system of biodefense for the nation, because the use of biological weapons through every environmental pathway poses a potential threat. Contaminations of water, growing crops, grazing cattle, air through inhalation, dermal absorption, or consumption of food or water in the human environment are potential delivery methods. For these risks of bioterrorism in the environment, there is an existing federal regulatory and statutory framework upon which the relationship between the environment and public health can be strengthened and shaped.
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Footnotes
†
She is the author of Law and Science: Cases and Materials (2001), Law and Bioterrorism (2003), and numerous articles.
References
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4 33 U.S.C. 401-67 (2000).
5 33 U.S.C. 407 (2000).
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10 Id. at 3024.
11 Id. at 3026.
12 Id. at 3025.
13 Id.
14 Id.
15 H.R. 12080, 84th Cong. (1956).
16 President's Memorandum of Disapproval of Rivers and Harbors Act for 1956 (Aug. 10, 1956), reprinted in 1956 U.S.C.C.A.N. 4828.
17 Id.
18 33 U.S.C. 1361 (1965).
19 Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1956, Pub. L. No. 84-660, 10, 12, 70 Stat. 498 (1956), reprinted in 1956 U.S.C.C.A.N. 560, 570-71.
20 Id.
21 Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, S. REP. NO. 92-414 (1972), reprinted in 1972 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3668, 3669-70.
22 42 U.S.C. 4321-4370a (2000) (signed into law by President Nixon on Jan. 1, 1970).
23 Exec. Order No. 11,548, 35 Fed. Reg. 11,677 (July 20, 1970).
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28 See, e.g., Illinois v. City of Milwaukee, 406 U.S. 91 (1972); New York v. New Jersey, 256 U.S. 296 (1921); Missouri v. Illinois, 200 U.S. 496 (1906).
29 See, e.g., Pennsylvania v. West Virginia, 262 U.S. 553 (1923); Connecticut v. Long Island Lighting Co., 535 F. Supp. 546 (E.D.N.Y. 1982).
30 Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Assn, 452 U.S. 264, 282 (1981).
31 Gibbons v. Ogden, 22 U.S. 1, 203 (1824).
32 James Madison, No. 46: Relative Strength of the Federal and State Governments, in THE ENDURING FEDERALIST 203, 204 (Charles A. Beard ed., 1948).
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34 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (FWOPCA or CWA), 33 USC 1251-1376 (2000).
35 Id.
36 A smallpox epidemic in 1900 in Massachusetts, a plague epidemic in San Francisco in 1900, the influenza pandemic of 1918, and the polio epidemic of the 1940s mark some of the most devastating diseases in the past century.
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38 Id. at 332.
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41 Madison, supra note 32, at 204.
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44 Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-188, 116 Stat. 694 (2002) (codified in scattered sections of 42 U.S.C.).
45 Id.
46 Pub. L. No. 104-201, 110 Stat. 2718 (1996) (codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. 2312 (2000)).
47 Id.
48 U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, PUB. NO. GAO-02-886T, HOMELAND SECURITY: PROPOSAL FOR CABINET AGENCY HAS MERIT, BUT IMPLEMENTATION WILL BE PIVOTAL TO SUCCESS 28 (2002).
49 Id. at 27.
50 GAO, PUB. NO. GAO-04-152, BIOTERRORISM: PUBLIC HEALTH RESPONSE TO ANTHRAX INCIDENTS OF 2001 4-5 (2003).
51 CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION, MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS AND SERVICES OFFICE, CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION MISSION, at http://www.cdc.gov/maso/agency.htm (last reviewed Aug. 27, 2003).
52 Pub. L. No. 107-188, 116 Stat. 594 (2002) (codified in scattered sections of 42 U.S.C.).
53 Id.
54 Id.
55 See Exec. Order No. 13,295, 68 Fed. Reg. 17,255 (Apr. 4, 2003); 42 U.S.C. 264 (2000).
56 Andreen, supra note 43, at 222-42.
57 See id. at 242-43; Robert, F. Blomquist, Senator Edmund S. Muskie and the Dawn of Modern American Environmental Law: First Term, 1959-1964, 26 WM. & MARY ENVTL. L. & POLY REV. 509, 546 (2002)Google Scholar.
58 Reorg. Plan No. 2 of 1966, 80 Stat. 1608 (1966).
59 Reorg. Plan No. 3 of 1970, 84 Stat. 2086, 2087, 2089 (1970).
60 John C. Whitaker, Earth Day Recollections: What It Was Like When the Movement Took Off, EPA J. (July/Aug. 1988), at http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/earthday/10.htm.
61 OFFICE OF HOMELAND SECURITY, NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR HOMELAND SECURITY 2 (2002), available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/book/index.html.
62 Id.
63 Id. at 5.
64 Whitman Says EPA May Seek More Control Over Water Security, Bioterrorism Response, 32 BNA ENV't REP. 2405 (Dec. 14, 2001).
65 OFFICE OF THE CHIEF FINANCIAL OFFICER, EPA, PUB. NO. EPA/190-R-97-002, EPA STRATEGIC PLAN 7 (1997), available at http://www.epa.gov/ocfo/plan/plan.htm.
66 EPA, 2003-2008 EPA STRATEGIC PLAN: DIRECTION FOR THE FUTURE 1 (2003), available at http://www.epa.gov/ocfo/plan/plan.htm [hereinafter 2003-2008 EPA STRATEGIC PLAN].
67 OFFICE OF SOLID WASTE AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE, EPA, PUB. NO. EPA 550-F-98-014, EPA's ROLE IN COUNTER-TERRORISM ACTIVITIES: FACTSHEET (1998), available at http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/content/ctpubl.htm [hereinafter EPA FACTSHEET].
68 Presidential Decision Directive No. 39 (June 21, 1995), available at http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/pdd39.htm [hereinafter PDD No. 39]; Presidential Decision Directive No. 62 (May 22, 1998), available at http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/pdd-62.htm [hereinafter PDD No. 62]; Presidential Decision Directive No. 63 (May 22, 1998), available at http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/pdd/pdd-63.htm [hereinafter PDD No. 63].
69 Id. at 2.
70 Id. at 1.
71 EPA, EPA's ROLE AND AUTHORITY IN COUNTER TERRORISM, at http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/content/ct-epro.htm (last modified Oct. 17, 2002) [hereinafter EPA's ROLE AND AUTHORITY].
72 PDD No. 39; PDD No. 62; PDD No. 63.
73 EPA FACTSHEET, supra note 67, at 2.
74 BUDGET OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT, FISCAL YEAR 2003 15 (2003) [hereinafter U.S. BUDGET 2003].
75 EPA's ROLE AND AUTHORITY, supra note 71.
76 2003-2008 EPA STRATEGIC PLAN, supra note 66, at 113-14.
77 OFFICE OF SOLID WASTE AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE, EPA, FY 2004 PERFORMANCE PRIORITIES FOR THE REGIONS 3 (2004), available at http://www.epa.gov/ocfo/npmguidance/oswer/fy04performancepriorities.pdf.
(3) Performance Priority: Homeland Security
Responding to small and large-scale disasters is one of EPA's traditional responsibilities. The Agency's crucial role in responding to the World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks, and the decontamination of anthrax at Capitol Hill, have further defined the nation's expectations of EPA's emergency response capabilities. The Agency will continue to play a unique role in responding to and preparing for future terrorist incidents, which could possibly be more devastating in scale and nature than those of September 11, 2001, and could include bioterrorism or dirty bombs that affect the lives of millions of Americans and devastate the economy.
Performance Expectations for Regions: The FY 2004 budget provides additional resources for equipment, training, and establishment of a Decontamination Team. We are facing FTE limitations, including a reduction of 55 FTE, from the level provided in the FY 2002 Counter-Terrorism Supplemental. OSWER Headquarters will work with the Regions and OCFO to address this shortfall. At the same time we face this challenge, we must continue to improve our readiness and response capabilities. The FY 2004 budget makes a commitment to establish a baseline for Agency preparedness in FY 2003, and formally report on that measure in FY 2004. Also, the Agency is striving to establish and maintain the capability to respond to simultaneous large-scale incidents, although, the resources in FY 2004 may not support the goal of responding to five such incidents as stated in the Agency's Homeland Security Strategic Plan.
Id.
78 EPA, STRATEGIC PLAN FOR HOMELAND SECURITY (2002), available at http://www.epa.gov/epahome/downloads/epa_homeland_security_strategic_plan.pdf [hereinafter SECURITY STRATEGIC PLAN].
79 Id.
80 OFFICE OF INSPECTOR GENERAL, EPA, EPA's RESPONSE TO THE WORLD TRADE CENTER COLLAPSE: CHALLENGES, SUCCESSES, AND AREAS FOR IMPROVEMENT (Rep. No. 2003-P-00012) (2003), available at http://www.epa.gov/oig/reports/2003/WTC_report_20030821.pdf.
81 Endangered Species Act of 1973, 16 U.S.C. 1536(j) (2000).
82 33 U.S.C. 1323, 1316, 1317 (2000).
83 42 U.S.C. 7418(b) (2000).
84 42 U.S.C. 6001.
85 15 U.S.C. 2621 (2000).
86 Weinberger v. Catholic Action of Hawaii/Peace Education Project, 454 U.S. 139, 144 (1981).
87 2003-2008 EPA STRATEGIC PLAN, supra note 66, at 162.
88 Biological Agent-Environmental Detection Act of 2001, S. 1560, 107th Cong. 3 (2001).
89 Laura Meckler, Nationwide Monitoring System Planned for Detecting Bioterror Attack, AP NEWSWIRE, Jan. 22, 2003.
90 Id.
91 Judith Miller, U.S. Deploying Monitor System for Germ Peril, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 22, 2003, at A1, A10.
92 Tularemia is a potentially serious illness that occurs naturally in animals and because tularemia can spread to humans through airborne pathogens, the CDC has listed it as a bioterrorism agent. CDC, KEY FACTS ABOUT TULAREMIA, at http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/tularemia/facts.asp (last modified Oct. 7, 2003).
93 See News Release, Houston Department of Health and Human Services, Officials Following up on Bacteria Detection, at http://www.ci.houston.tx.us/departme/health/bacteria%20detection.htm (Oct. 9, 2003) [hereinafter News Release].
94 Id.
95 Id.
96 Id.
97 See John Mintz, U.S. Provides a Peek at Air Sensor Program, WASH. POST, Nov. 15, 2003, at A3.
98 See id.
99 See News Release, supra note 93.
100 Id.
101 42 U.S.C. 7407, 7410 (2000).
102 2003-2008 EPA STRATEGIC PLAN, supra note 66, at 162.
103 Id. [A]s a result of EPA's experience with air monitoring and indoor air quality issues, the then-Office of Homeland Security at the White House gave the Agency the lead for the Biowatch system. This system is being implemented in cities across the country to monitor for airborne release of certain biological contaminants. Id.
104 2003-2008 EPA STRATEGIC PLAN, supra note 66, at 161-64.
105 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY, DHS ORGANIZATION: WHO WILL BE PART OF THE NEW DEPARTMENT?, at http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/interapp/editorial/editorial_0133.xml (last visited July 22, 2004).
106 See U.S. BUDGET 2003, supra note 74.
107 7 U.S.C. 136-136y (2000).
108 Id. 136p.
109 See 40 C.F.R. 166.3 (2003).
110 Id. 166.2(c), 166.45.
111 Pesticide Emergency Exemptions; Agency Decisions and State and Federal Agency Crisis Declarations, 67 Fed. Reg. 6707 III.B (Feb. 13, 2002) (exemption issued Dec. 7, 2001, expiring in one year).
112 Id. (exemption issued Nov. 16, 2001, expiring in one year).
113 Id. (exemption issued Nov. 30, 2001, expiring in one year).
114 EPA, PESTICIDES: TOPICAL & CHEMICAL FACT SHEETSMETHYL BROMIDE, at http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/chemicals/methylbromide_factsheet.htm (last updated Aug. 11, 2003).
115 Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act of 1986 (EPCRA), 42 U.S.C. 11001 (2000).
116 Victoria, V. Sutton, A Precarious Hot ZoneThe President's Plan To Combat Bioterrorism, 164 MIL. L. REV. 135, 147 (2000)Google Scholar; see also Vickie V. Sutton, Perceptions of Local Emergency Planning Committee Members Responsibility for Risk Communication for Risk Communication and a Proposed Model Risk Communication Program for Local Emergency Planning Committees Under SARA, Title III (1989) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Dallas) (on file with author) (providing information on the formation of the local emergency planning committees (LEPCs); the designation of the LEPCs took one year, and an additional year to resolve a dispute concerning the delineation of planning districts).
117 EPA FACTSHEET, supra note 67.
118 Id.
119 CHEMICAL EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND PREVENTION OFFICE, EPA, LEPCS AND DELIBERATE RELEASES: ADDRESSING TERRORIST ACTIVITIES IN THE LOCAL EMERGENCY PLAN (PUB. NO. EPA 550-F-01-005) (2001), available at http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/content/staloc.htm [hereinafter LEPCS AND DELIBERATE RELEASES].
120 EPCRA, 42 U.S.C. 11001(c).
121 LEPCS AND DELIBERATE RELEASES, supra note 119, at 1.
122 42 U.S.C. 11044.
123 Id. (plans, material safety data sheets); id. 11022(e) (chemical inventories).
124 Kara Sissell, Right-to-Know Activists Consider Lawsuit Over RMP Data, CHEMICAL WEEK, April 28, 2004, at 13.
125 U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, HOMELAND SECURITY: EPA's MANAGEMENT OF CLEAN AIR ACT CHEMICAL FACILITY DATA, Rep. No. GAO-03-509R (Mar. 14, 2003).
126 65 Fed. Reg. 48108 (Aug. 4, 2000).
127 PDD No. 39, supra note 72; PDD No. 62, supra note 72; PDD No. 63, supra note 72.
128 See Rafael Lorente, Congressman Mocks Plan to Buy AMI Building Closed by Anthrax, S. FLA. SUN-SENTINEL, Feb. 11, 2003, at A1; EPA, HART SENATE OFFICE DECONTAMINATION PROGRESSING, at http://www.epa.gov/epahome/headline_120301.htm (Dec. 3, 2001).
129 The President's 2003 budget requested 124 million in new funding for a total EPA investment of 133.4 million for homeland security. Of the total EPA budget, 75 million was dedicated to decontamination activities. U.S. BUDGET 2003, supra note 74.
130 See Kathy Bushouse, AMI Test Water Was Cleaned, Dumped: Officials Say Waste Had Been Made Safe, S. FLA. SUN-SENTINEL, Sept. 20, 2002, at B1.
131 Id.
132 Id.
133 Pub. L. No. 107-188, 116 Stat. 633 (2002).
134 42 U.S.C. 300i-2 (2000).
135 5 U.S.C. 552(b)(1) (2000).
136 Id. 552.
137 Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-188, 116 Stat. 633, sec. 401 (2002).
138 ASSOCIATION OF METROPOLITAN WATER AGENCIES, STATE FOIA LAWS: A GUIDE TO PROTECTING SENSITIVE WATER SECURITY INFORMATION (2002), available at http://www.amwa.net/security.
139 Id.
140 See, e.g., MONT. CONST. art. II, 9.
141 Bush Signs Anti-Terrorism Bill Into Law Requiring Drinking Water Threat Assessments, 1332 BNA ENVT. REP. (June 14, 2002).
142 Smith v. Potter, 187 F. Supp. 2d 93 (S.D.N.Y. 2001).
143 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980, Pub. L. No. 96-510, 94 Stat. 2767 (1980) (codified in scattered sections of 42 U.S.C. and 26 U.S.C.).
144 42 U.S.C. 9659 (2000).
145 Smith, 187 F. Supp. 2d at 98.
146 42 U.S.C. 6903(27) (2000).
147 Id. 9601(33).
148 Smith, 187 F. Supp. 2d at 98.
149 Smith v. Potter, 208 F. Supp. 2d 415, 418 (2002).
150 Id. at 418 n.2.
151 See DAVID A. KOPLOW, SMALLPOX: THE FIGHT TO ERADICATE A GLOBAL SCOURGE 124-36 (2003).
152 42 U.S.C. 4332 (2000).
153 Douglas County v. Babbitt, 48 F.3d 1495, 1505 (9th Cir. 1995). NEPA procedures do not apply to federal actions that do nothing to alter the natural physical environment, and the court explains, when a federal agency takes an action that prevents human interference with the environment, it need not prepare an EIS. Id. at 1506.
154 16 U.S.C. 1532(6) (2000).
155 Hantavirus is a deadly disease transmitted by infected rodents through urine, droppings, or saliva which humans can contract when they breathe in aerosolized virus. NATIONAL CENTERS FOR INFECTIOUS DISEASES, CDC, ALL ABOUT HANTAVIRUSES, at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/hanta/hps (last reviewed July 8, 2004).
156 See LORI ARVISO ALVORD & ELIZABETH COHEN VAN PELT, THE SCALPEL AND THE SILVER BEAR 120-27 (1999).
157 See Anna, M. Molesworth et al., Environmental Risk and Meningitis Epidemics in Africa, 9 EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES 1287 (2003)Google Scholar.
158 Paul, R. Epstein, Enhanced: Climate and Health, 285 SCIENCE 347 (1999)Google Scholar.
159 M.F. Lechat, The Epidemiology of Health Effects of Disasters, 12 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL REVIEWS 192(1990).
160 Mosquito Abatement for Safety and Health Act of 2003, Pub.L. No. 108-75, 117 Stat. 898 (2003).
161 Id.
162 Id.
163 ROBERT S. DESOWITZ, THE MALARIA CAPERS: MORE TALES OF PARASITES AND PEOPLE, RESEARCH AND REALITY (1991).
164 THOMAS E. DAHL, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR, FISH & WILDLIFE SERVICE, WETLANDS LOSSES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1780 TO 1980s (1990).
165 Saving the Ecosystem for the Mosquitoes, 8 DOCTORS FOR DISASTER PREPAREDNESS NEWSL. (1991), at http://www.oism.org/ddp/ddpnews/ddpnov91.html.
166 33 U.S.C. 1251 (2000).
167 UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME, THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE THE OZONE LAYER (2002), available at http://www.unep.org/ozone/Publications/6iv_publications%20others.asp.
168 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Dec. 11, 1997, 37 I.L.M. 22 (entered into force Mar. 21, 1994), available at http://unfccc.int/resource/convkp.html.
169 See infra Part II.B.
170 The origin of this phrase is not certain, but this author first identifies it from a letter (circa 1620) from Sir Drummond, a Scottish poet and author to Sir Robert Ker in response to a duel, won by Sir Ker: Ye are too good for these times, in which, as in a time of plague, men must once be sick, and that deadly, ere they can be assured of any safety. A portion of this letter is available at http://www.electricscotland.com/history/other/drummond_william.htm (last visited July 22, 2004).