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Judicial Determination of the Sexual Identity of Post-Operative Transsexuals: A New Form of Sex Discrimination

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2021

Jerold Taitz
Jerold Taitz*
Affiliation:
Associate Professor in the Faculty of Law, University of Cape Town. Sometime Nuffield Senior Research Fellow, Green College, Oxford, Attorney of the Supreme Court. Professor Taitz has launched and conducts a medicolegal programme at the University of the Cape Town.
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Abstract

Transsexualism is a condition in which an individual's psychological gender is the opposite of his or her anatomical sex. A “sex-change” operation can bring anatomical sex into line with gender, but it cannot create a new biological sex capable of procreation. The operation is expensive, dangerous and lengthy, yet in 1983 there were an estimated 6,000 post-operative transsexuals in the United States. Certain European countries have legislation recognizing the post-operative transsexual's new sex. Case law in the United Kingdom and the United States, however, prevent post-operative transsexuals from gaining legal recognition. The author does see some hope, however, for a change in the trend against recognition of transsexuals’ post-operative sex. This Article discusses the reasons behind this trend and concludes that the greater danger would be a consensus of medical opinion holding that sex-change surgery is unnecessary, questioning the very existence of post-operative transsexuals. Finally, the author calls for legislative action to remove judicially-imposed obstacles and to give legal recognition to the postoperative transsexual's new sex and identity.

Type
Articles
Information
American Journal of Law & Medicine , Volume 13 , Issue 1 , 1987 , pp. 53 - 69
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics and Boston University 1987

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Footnotes

*

The writer is indebted to Dr. C.F. Forsyth of Robinson College, Cambridge for his helpful suggestions. Any errors in this work are solely those of the writer.

References

1 “Biological male” and biological female” refer to the anatomical sex of the transsexual at birth. “Post-operative male” and “Post-operative female” or “Post-operative transsexual male” and “Post-operative transsexual female” denote the new sex of the transsexual who has undergone sex-change surgery.

2 Belli, , Transsexual Surgery: A New Tort?, 239 J.A.M.A. 2143, 2144 (1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 M.T. v. J.T., 140 N.J. Super. 77, 80, 355 A.2d. 204, 206 (App. Div.), cert, denied, 71 N.J. 345, 364 A.2d 1076 (1976).

4 Hoenig, , Kenna, & Youd, , Surgical Treatment for Transsexualism, 74 ACTA PSYCHIATRICA SCANDINAVICA 106, 110, 120, 128 & 131 (1971)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also the evidence of Dr. Hoopes in G. B. v. Lackner, 80 Cal. App. 3d 64, 68, 145 Cal. Rptr. 555, 557 (1978); Roth, infra note 35, at 14.

5 Roth, infra note 35, at 12.

6 Block & Tessler, infra note 35, at 518; Roth, infra note 35, at 14.

7 Benjamin, Introduction to TRANSSEXUALISM AND SEX REASSIGNMENT 2 (R., Green & J., Money, eds. 1969) and Transvestism and Transsexualism, 7 INT'L J. SEXOLOGY 12 (1953)Google Scholar; see also Corbett v. Corbett (orse. Ashley), [1971] P. 83, 98.

8 J. MORRIS, CONUNDRUM 49 (1974); see also M.T. v. J.T., 140 N.J. Super. 77, 80, 355 A.2d 204, 205 (App. Div.), cert, denied, 71 N.J. 345, 364 A.2d 1076 (1976). (“gender identity … ‘pervades one's entire concept of one's place in life, of one's place in society and in point of fact the actual facts of the anatomy are really secondary …. ‘ “ (quoting Dr. I. Wenfeld)).

9 See G.B. v. Lackner, 80 Cal. App. 3d 64, 67-68, 145 Cal. Rptr. 555, 556-57 (1978) (evidence of Drs. Leibman, Brown, Tennant, Crews and Hoopes); see also Rush v. Johnson, 565 F. Supp. 856, 863-66 (N.D. Ga. 1983).

10 Rush, 565 F. Supp. at 868 (finding that “the evidence taken as a whole shows that [such surgery] constitutes major surgery with various attendant risks and complications“), see also Symmers, Carcinoma of Breast in Trans-sexual Individuals after Surgical and Hormonal Interference with the Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics, 2 BRIT. MED. J. 82, 83 (1968)Google Scholar; Lehrman, , Pulmonary Embolism in a Transsexual Man Taking Diethylstibestol, 235 J.A.M.A. 532 (1976)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Jones, Operative Treatment of the Male Transsexual, in TRANSSEXUALISM AND SEX REASSIGNMENT, supra note 7, at 313; Hoenig, Kenna & Youd, supra note 4, at 109.

12 Corbett v. Corbett (orse. Ashley), [1971] P. 83, at 96.

13 M.T. v. J.T., 140 N.J. Super. 77, 80, 355 A.2d 204, 206 (App. Div.), cert, denied, 71 N.J. 345, 364 A.2d 1076 (1976); Taitz, , The Law Relating to the Consummation of Marriage Where, One of the Spouses is a Post-operative Transsexual 15 ANGLO AM. L. REV. 141 (1986)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Hoopes, Operative Treatment of the Female Transsexual, in TRANSSEXUALISM AND SEXREASSIGNMENT, supra note 14, at 335; Hoenig, Kenna & Youd, supra note 4, at 109.

15 Roth, infra note 35, at 12.

16 Rush v. Johnson, 565 F. Supp. 856, 864 (N.D. Ga. 1983). In her book, The Transsexual Empire, Janice G. Raymond points out that Newsweek indicated that there were some 3000 post-operative transsexuals in the U.S. Thus it would appear that the number of post-operative transsexuals doubled in 7 years. J., RAYMOND, THE TRANSSEXUAL EMPIRE 23 (1979)(citing Clark, The Transsexuals, NEWSWEEK 104 (Nov. 22, 1976)Google Scholar.

17 J., MASON & R., SMITH, LAW AND MEDICAL ETHICS 39 (1983)Google Scholar.

18 E.g., Sweden, West Germany, Czechoslavakia, Greece, Italy, Holland, Switzerland and Finland.

19 Kennedy, , Transsexualism and Single Sex Marriage, 2 ANGLO AM. L. REV. 112, 130(1973)Google Scholar.

20 Brent, , Some Legal Problems of the Post-Operative Transsexual, 12 J. FAMILY L. 405, 421 (1972-1973)Google Scholar; 814 PARL. DEB. H.C. (5th ser.) 1837-38 (1971) (statement of Mr. Leo Abse regarding proposed Nullity of Marriage Bill).

21 Kennedy, supra note 20 at 130; 814 PARL. DEB. H.C. (5th ser.) 1837-38 (1971).

22 Ormrod, , The Medico-Legal Aspects of Sex Determination, 40 MEDICO-LEGAL J. 78 (1972)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 See Note, Transsexuals in Limbo, 31 MD. L. REV. 236, 244 (1971)Google Scholar; Kennedy, supra note 20, at 114.

24 [1971] P. 83.

25 Id. at 106.

26 Cf. Cole, , Transsexuals in Search of Legal Acceptance: The Constitutionality of the Chromosome Test, 15 SAN DIEGO L. REV. 331 (1978)Google Scholar (arguing that chromosome pattern is only one of the many criteria that determine sex and that the chromosome test should be rejected in favor of the gender anatomy test applied in M.T. v. J.T. [infra note 36], one, in the alternative should be applied in certain contexts only, such as marriage, and not be used to determine the transsexuals’ overall sex).

27 Corbett, [1971] P. 100, 106 (The court rejected the psychological, as a fourth factor, which was accepted by all the medical witnesses).

28 Id. at 106-09. For some recent U.S. court decisions, see e.g., Baker v. Nelson, 291 Minn. 310, 191 N.W.2d 185 (1971), appeal dismissed, 409 U.S. 810 (1972); Singer v. Hara, 11 Wash. App. 247, 522 P.2d 1187 (1974); B v. B, 78 Misc. 2d 112, 116-17, 355 N.Y.S.2d 712, 716 (1974).

29 In an alternative judgment the court found that the respondent was unable to consummate the marriage, equating the use of her artificial vagina in sexual intercourse to the performance of anal intercourse. Corbett, [1971] P. 107.

30 Id. at 105-07.

31 Steinke v. Steinke, 238 Pa. Super. 74, 357 A.2d 674 (1975).

32 Ulane v. Eastern Airlines, 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984), cert, denied, 471 U.S. 1017 (1985); Holloway v. Arthur Andersen & Co., 566 F.2d 659 (9th Cir. 1977); Voyles v. Ralph K. Davies Medical Center, 403 F. Supp. 456 (N.D. Cal. 1975); In re Grossman, 384 A.2d 855 (App. Div. 1978).

33 Rush v.Johnson, 565 F. Supp. 856 (N.D. Ga. 1983); G.B. v. Lackner, 80 Cal. App. 3d 64, 145 Cal. Rptr. 555 (1978); J.D. v. Lackner, 80 Cal. App. 3d 90, 145 Cal. Rptr. 570 (1978).

34 Christian v. Randall, 33 Colo. App. 129, 516 P.2d 132 (1973).

35 Roth, , Transsexualism and the Sex-Change Operation: A Contemporary Medico-Legal and Social Problem, 49 MEDICO-LEGAL J. 5, 14 (1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Block, & Tessler, , Transsexualism and Surgical Procedures, 132 SURGERY, GYNECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS 517, 522 (1971)Google Scholar.

36 B v. B, 78 Misc. 2d 112, 355 N.Y.S.2d 712, 716 (1974); Anonymous v. Anonymous, 567 Misc. 2d 982, 325 N.Y.S.2d 499, 500 (1971); (both cases quoting 52 AM. JUR. 2D Marriage § 1, at 866 (1970 & Supp. 1987)); M.T. v. J.T., 140 N.J. Super. 77, 83, 355 A.2d 204, 207 (App. Div. 1976), cert, denied, 71 N.J. 345, 364 A.2d 1076 (1976).

37 Id.; see also cases cited supra note 28.

38 67 Misc. 2d 982, 325 N.Y.S.2d 499 (1971).

39 78 Misc. 2d 112, 355 N.Y.S.2d 712 (1974).

40 140 N.J. Super. 77, 355 A.2d 204 (App. Div.), cert, denied, 71 N.J. 345, 364 A.2d 1076 (1976).

41 B v. B, 78 Misc. 2d at 114, 118, 355 N.Y.S.2d at 713, 717.

42 Id.

43 Dr. George Burou of Casablanca is the surgeon who performed male-to-female sex surgery on April Ashley. See Corbett, [1971] P. 83, 96. It is more than likely that he also is the “Dr. Burou” who performed the sex-change operation on Jan Morris in Casablanca. See CONUNDRUM, supra note 8, at 135-36.

44 B v . B , 78 Misc. 2d at 117-18, 355 N.Y.S.2d at 717 (quoting Prisoners of Sex, TIME 63 (Jan. 21, 1974).

45 M.T. v. J.T., supra note 40 at 83.

46 Id.

47 Id. at 84.

48 Id. at 87.

49 Id.

50 Id. at 89.

51 In recent times two of the most important institutions concerning transsexuals in the U.S., the Johns Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic (world famous for its sex-change research and clinical treatment) and the Erickson Educational Foundation (renowned for academic sexchange research) have closed. Cf. Roth, supra note 35, at 18.

52 See 810 HANSARD 1175-77 (1971); 814 PARL. DEB. H.C. (5th ser.) (1971).

53 Nullity of Marriage Act, 1971.

54 Id. at § 1(c). This sub-section has been incorporated into the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1973 as § 11(c).

55 Ulane v. Eastern Airlines, 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984), cert, denied, 471 U.S. 1017 (1985); Rush v. Johnson, 565 F. Supp. 856 (N.D. Ga. 1983); Regina v. Tan [1983] Q.B. 1053 (C.A.).

56 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984), cert, denied, 471 U.S. 1017 (1985).

57 Id. at 1087 (emphasis added by appellate court).

58 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000e-2000e(l7) (1982).

59 Ulane v. Eastern Airlines, 581 F. Supp. 821, 839-40 (N.D. Ill. 1984).

60 742 F.2d at 1087, rev'g 581 F. Supp. at 839-40.

61 581 F. Supp. at 840.

62 742 F.2d at 1087.

63 Id.

64 Id. at 1086 (citing Sommers v. Budget Marketing, Inc., 667 F.2d 748, 750 (8th Cir. 1982) (per curiam); Holloway v. Arthur Andersen & Co., 566 F.2d 659, 662-63 (9th Cir. 1977)).

65 742 F.2d at 1087.

66 565 F. Supp. 856 (N.D. Ga. 1983).

67 Id. at 857.

68 Id. (citing Rush v. Parham, 625 F.2d 1150, 1157 (5th Cir. 1980). A third issued raised was whether the respondent State had reached a proper administrative decision. As the court decided the first two issues in the affirmative, the third question became irrelevant.

69 565 F. Supp. at 866-67.

70 565 F. Supp. at 864 (testimony of Drs. Walker and Satlerfield).

71 565 F. Supp. at 865 (testimony of Drs. Meyer, Volkan and Cohen).

72 See id. at 865-66 (testimony of Drs. Volkan and Cohen); cf. id. at 863-64 (testimony of Drs. Walker and Satterfield).

73 Id. at 864 (testimony of Dr. Walker), 865 (testimony of Dr. Meyer) 866 (testimony of Dr. Cohen, erroneously referred to as Dr. Sheldon); see also supra note 10.

74 565 F. Supp. at 867.

75 Id. at 868.

76 Id.

77 [1983] Q.B. 1053 (C.A.).

78 Id. at 1057.

79 Sexual Offenses Act, 195 b, 4 & 5 Eliz. 2, ch. 69, § 30.

80 Tan, [1983] Q.B. at 1063.

81 Id. at 1056.

82 Regina v. Tan, [1983] 2 All E.R. at 20 (same case as supra note 77; cited for additional information in slightly different All England Report version.

83 [1983] Q.B. at 1064.

84 See id. at 1056.

85 Id. at 1064.

86 Corbett v. Corbett (orse. Ashley), [1971] P. 105-07.

87 [1983] Q.B. at 1056.

88 Pace, , Sexual Identity and the Criminal Law, 1983 CRIM. L. REV. 317, 320Google Scholar (rape and bigomy); Taitz, , Some Criminal Law Anomalies brought about by a Sex-change, 48 TYDSKRIF VIR HEEDENDAAGSE ROMEINS-HOLLANDS REG 97 (1985)Google Scholar.

89 [1963] P. 37.

90 Id. at 60.

91 Id. at 60-61.

92 3 Eur. Ct. H.R. 557 (1981).

93 Id. at 572.

94 7 Eur. Ct. H.R. 429 (1985).

95 Id. at 434.

96 Id. at 434-35.

97 Id. at 435.

98 Id. at 436.

99 Eur. Court H.R., Rees judgment of 17 October 1986, Series A no. 106.

100 Id. at 17, § 42(a).

101 Id. at 19, §§ 48-51.

102 Id. at 18-19, § 47.

103 Corbett, [1971] P. at 98-99.

104 Hartin v. Director, Bureau of Records & Statistics, 75 Misc. 2d 229, 231, 347 N.Y.S.2d 515, 517-18 (1973); Anonymous v. Weiner, 50 Misc. 2d 380, 383, 270 N.Y.S.2d 319, 322 (1966). But cf. M.T. v. J.T., 140 N.J. Super. 77, 89, 355 A.2d 204, 210 (App. Div.) cert, denied, 71 NJ. 345, 364 A.2d 1076 (1976).

105 See Regina v. Tan, [1983] Q.B. 1053, 1064 (C.A.); Corbett v. Corbett (orse. Ashley), [1971] P. 83, 107; Kennedy, supra note 3, at 130, 132-33; Brent, supra note 3, at 421.

106 See e.g. Tan, [1983] Q.B. at 1058; Steinke v. Steinke, 238 Pa. Super. 74, 76-77, 357 A.2d 674, 675-76 (1975); Corbett, [1971] P. at 91-96; Anonymous v. Anonymous, 567 Misc. 2d 982, 983-84, 325 N.Y.S.2d 499, 499-500 (1971).

107 See supra note 18.

108 Van, Oosterwiick, 3 Eur. Ct. H.R. 557, 584 (1981)Google Scholar.