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² Goldie Taylor, White America’s Heroin Problem, The Daily Beast (March 28, 2016), http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/03/28/mr-president-it-s-time-to-end-the-racist-war-on-drugs.html [https://perma.cc/TM64-GQKZ].

³ Charles Lane, The Opioid Epidemic: For Whites Only?, The Washington Post (April 18, 2016), https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/post-partisan/wp/2016/08/18/the-opioid-epidemic-for-whites-only/?utm_term=.d42815c157bf [https://perma.cc/C4GF-CZG8].

⁴ Tess Owen, Heroin Kills Whites People More Than Anyone Else—and Nobody is Sure Why, Vice News (Jan 27, 2016), https://news.vice.com/article/heroin-kills-white-people-more-than-anyone-else-and-nobody-is-sure-why [https://perma.cc/4WHN-CYFK].

⁵ Daniel Geary, The Moynihan Report: An Annotated Edition, The Atlantic (Sep. 14, 2015), https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/09/the-moynihan-report-an-annotated-edition/404632/ [https://perma.cc/JV6Y-UHK3].

⁶ Office of Policy Planning and Research, U.S. Dep’t of Labor, The Negro Family: The Case For National Action (1965).

⁷ Ta-Nehisi Coates, The Black Family in the Age of Mass Incarceration, The Atlantic (Oct. 2015), https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/10/the-Black-family-in-the-age-of-mass-incarceration/403246/ [https://perma.cc/T9CG-6WV7]; see Marjorie Valbrun, Was the Moynihan Report Right? Sobering Findings After the 1965 Study is Revisited, The Washington Post (June 13, 2013), https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/was-the-moynihan-report-right-sobering-findings-after-1965-study-is-revisited/2013/06/13/80eac980-d432-11e2-b05f-3ea3f0e7bb5a_story.html?utm_term=.76dd9eb989ef [https://perma.cc/2F4F-3VXC]; see also Stephen Steinberg, The Moynihan Report at Fifty, Boston Review (June 24, 2015), http://bostonreview.net/us/stephen-steinberg-moynihan-report-black-families-nathan-glazer [https://perma.cc/U3KU-EF6Z].

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⁹ Hansen, Helena & Roberts, Samuel K., Two Tiers of Biomedicalization: Methadone, Buprenorphine, and the Racial Politics of Addiction Treatment, in Critical Perspectives on Addiction (Advances in Medical Sociology, Volume 14) 79, 79-102 (Julie Netherland ed., 2012).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ Sam Quinones, Dreamland: The True Tale of America’s Opiate Epidemic (2016).

¹¹ When the focus was on Black users, New York City Mayor Ed Koch, a Democrat, told an audience at the 1989 U.S. Conference of Mayors gathering, “Those people belong in jail. Those people who are users, I have no sympathy for them. None at all. Maybe in the past we did. It has gone on too long.” Todd Bookman, Addiction, Compassion, Race: Looking back at the Crack Epidemic, Newsworks (Feb. 24, 2016), http://www.newsworks.org/index.php/local/the-pulse/91223-addiction-compassion-race-looking-back-at-the-crack-epidemic [https://perma.cc/CR9L-DZSF].

¹² “It is a stunning turnaround of humanization, of reaching out, of undermining blameworthiness, and of talking about drugs as a medical problem, and a public health problem, rather than a pathology and weakness within a community,’ says Ekow Yankah, a professor at Cardozo Law School in Manhattan.” Id.; see David Armstrong, 52 weeks, 52 faces, STAT (Dec. 20, 2016), https://www.statnews.com/feature/opioid-epidemic/obituaries/ [https://perma.cc/C6Y2-S5UX].

¹³ Hansen, Helena & Netherland, Julie, Is the Prescription Opioid Epidemic a White Problem?, 106 Am. J. Public Health 2127, 2128 (2016).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹⁶ Id. (emphasis added).

¹⁷ Nicholas Wade, A Troublesome Inheritance 9, 13 (2014) (suggesting that not only distinct social groups, but entire civilizations may have developed based on their genetic predisposition: “Genes do not determine human behavior; they merely predispose people to act in certain ways…. [S]ome societies have achieved much more than others, perhaps through minor differences in social behavior…. Economists and historians have described many factors that contributed to Europe’s awakening. One that is seldom considered is the possibility of an evolutionary change, that the European population, in adapting to its particular local circumstances, happened to evolve a kind of society that was highly favorable to innovation.”).

¹⁸ Graham Coop et al, Letters: “A Troublesome Inheritance”, Stanford University (Aug. 8, 2014), https://cehg.stanford.edu/letter-from-population-geneticists [https://perma.cc/MY6B-7RMJ] (expressing “full agreement that there is no support from the field of population genetics for Wade’s conjectures.”).

¹⁹ Mamdani, Mahmood, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: A Political Perspective on Culture and Terrorism, 104 Am. Anthropologist 766, 766 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁰ Du Bois, supra note 1.

²¹ Id.

²² See, e.g., Paul Barrett, The Good Black: A True Story of Race in America (1999).

²³ Meet the Press with Chuck Todd (NBC television broadcast Jan. 22, 2017) (interview with Kellyanne Conway) (“You’re saying it’s a falsehood…. Sean Spicer, our Press Secretary, gave alternative facts to that.”).

²⁴ Albert Memmi, Racism 18 (2000).

²⁵ Id.

²⁶ Id.

²⁷ Mamdani, supra note 19, at 766.

²⁸ Id. at 767.

²⁹ Id. at 766.

³⁰ Differences and conflicts that are typically rendered inherent and immutable through the language of culture, are better understood as “born of an encounter” that is historical and political. Id. at 767.

³¹ See Bell, Joyce M. & Hartmann, Douglas, Diversity in Everyday Discourse: The Cultural Ambiguities and Consequences of “Happy Talk”, 72 Am. Sociological Rev. 895, 911 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³² Ellen Berry, The Enigma of Diversity: The Language OF Race and the Limits of Racial Justice 3 (2015).

³³ See id.

³⁴ Id. at 7.

³⁵ Visweswaran, Kamala, Race and the Culture of Anthropology, 100 Am. Anthropologist 70, 76 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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³⁸ Id. at 131, 135.

³⁹ Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists, 162 (1992).

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⁴⁴ Id. at 1-2 (arguing that “certain socially-transmitted and differentially distributed skills and resources are critical to the ability to effectively engage and communicate with clinical providers.”).

⁴⁵ See Imani Perry, More Beautiful and More Terrible: The Embrace and Transcendence of Racial Inequality in the United States (2011).

⁴⁶ Id. at 44. Importantly, Perry distinguishes narrative from stereotype. Whereas the latter conjures a totalizing image of a group, a narrative tells you “what follows from that meaning … racial narratives have a greater potential to intervene in deliberation and decision making because they both operate in people’s minds as knowledge and also seem less ideological.” Id. at 46.

⁴⁷ See id. at 36-48.

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⁵¹ Id. at 212.

⁵² Id. at 219.

⁵³ Id. at 219.

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⁶⁰ Id. at 130; see Taylor, supra note 40, at 559 (“Cultural competence curricula will, perhaps, achieve their greatest success if and when they put themselves out of business—if and when, that is, medical competence itself is transformed to such a degree that it is no longer possible to imagine it as not also being ‘cultural.’”).

⁶¹ Metzl & Hansen, supra note 58, at 128.

⁶² Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, supra note 54.

⁶³ Metzl & Hansen, supra note 58, at 108 (“[Medical students] may find difficulty in viewing medicine as a culture because the culture of medicine is not a topic that is formally discussed in medical school education. The culture of medicine is most often learned through the hidden curriculum and through role-modeling. Although it is not a part of the formal curriculum, the hidden curriculum often dictates certain customs, rituals, and rules of conduct thereby, defining the cultural milieu of medicine.”); see Boutin-Foster, Carla, Foster, Jordan C. & Konopasek, Lyuba, Physician, Know Thyself: The Professional Culture of Medicine as a Framework for Teaching Cultural Competence, 83 Acad. Med. 106, 107 (2008).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

⁶⁴ Ruha Benjamin, People's Science: Bodies and Rights on the Stem Cell Frontier (2013).

⁶⁵ Id.

⁶⁶ Id. at 115.

⁶⁷ Benjamin, supra note 64, at 115-16.

⁶⁸ See Gregg, Jessica & Saha, Somnath, Losing Culture on the Way to Competence: The Use and Misuse of Culture in Medical Education, 81 Acad. Med. 542, 543 (2006)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed (“Acknowledging that it is important for clinicians to understand that both they and their patients have cultural filters that color their interpretations of both health and disease, it is equally important to appreciate the complex ways in which these filters operate. Otherwise, cultural competence programs run the risk of reinforcing cultural stereotypes and biases, and of seeing stable cultural norms or predictable culturally based behaviors where none exist. Yet within the cultural competence movement, culture is frequently defined in a rather uncomplicated fashion—as a fixed, knowable entity that guides individuals’ behavior in linear ways.”).

⁶⁹ Benjamin, supra note 64.

⁷⁰ Benjamin, Ruha, Organized Ambivalence: When Sickle Cell Disease and Stem Cell Research Converge, 15 Ethnicity and Health 447, 450 (2011).Google Scholar

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⁷² Steven Epstein, Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge 350 (1996), noted in Ruha Benjamin, People’s Science: Bodies and Rights on the Stem Cell Frontier 145 (2013).

⁷³ Wear, supra note 55, at 551 (“[Medical] students would also learn to identify and analyze unequal distributions of power that allow some groups, but not others, to acquire and keep resources, which would also include the rituals, policies, attitudes, and protocols of the very institution educating them.”).

⁷⁴ Laurent, Louise C. et al., Restricted Ethnic Diversity in Human Embryonic Stem Cell Lines, 7 Nature Methods 6 (2010).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

⁷⁵ Id. at 6-7.

⁷⁶ What is Cell Culture, Coriell Inst., https://www.coriell.org/research-services/cell-culture/what-is-cell-culture [https://perma.cc/8GS4-W6QK] (“In its simplest form, cell culture involves the dispersal of cells in an artificial environment composed of nutrient solutions, a suitable surface to support the growth of cells, and ideal conditions of temperature, humidity, and gaseous atmosphere. In such a system, a researcher can precisely measure the response of the cell’s alterations in culture, prospective drugs, the presence or absence of other kinds of cells, carcinogenic agents, and viruses.”).

⁷⁷ States of Knowledge: The Co-Production of Science and Social Order 2 (Sheila Jasanoff ed., 2004).

⁷⁸ J. Lenner, Scientists Develop Technique to Determine Ethnic Origin of Stem Cell Lines, Stem Cell Institute (Dec. 31, 2009), https://www.cellmedicine.com/ethnic-origin [https://perma.cc/KR4S-E7A2].

⁷⁹ Press Release, Scripps Research Institute, Team Led by Scripps Research Scientists Develops Technique to Determine Ethic Origin of Stem Cell Lines (Dec. 29, 2009), http://www.scripps.edu/news/press/2009/122909.html) [https://perma.cc/JHQ8-RUPN].

⁸⁰ Id.

⁸¹ Laurent et al., supra note 75, at 7.

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⁸⁴ Id. at 4.

⁸⁵ See, e.g., The National Institutes of Health Revitalization Act of 1993, Pub. L. No. 103-43, § 492B(a) (ensuring that medical research includes a racially diverse population).

⁸⁶ Epstein, Steven, The Rise of ‘Recruitmentology’: Clinical Research, Racial Knowledge, and the Politics of Inclusion and Difference, 38 Soc. Stud. Sci. 801, 806 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁸⁸ Faden, Ruth R. et al., Public Stem Cell Banks: Considerations of Justice in Stem Cell Research and Therapy, 33 Hastings Ctr. Rep. 13, 27 (2003).Google ScholarPubMed

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⁹⁶ Hansen & Roberts, supra note 9, at 98.

⁹⁷ Julie Netherland & Helena Hansen, White opioids: Pharmaceutical Race and the War on Drugs That Wasn’t, Biosocieties, Jan. 11, 2016, at 1, 14.