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Statelessness as Result of Conflict of Nationality Laws

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 April 2017

William Samore
William Samore*
Affiliation:
Harvard University Law School
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Abstract

Article 1 of the Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws permits “each state to determine under its own law who are its nationals.” It is precisely because the loss and acquisition of nationality is a matter of unilateral state action that statelessness under certain conditions does occur. The loss of nationality is sometimes closely related to the methods by which nationality is acquired. Most common among these methods of acquisition are: (1) by birth, (2) by minority, (3) by marriage.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Journal of International Law , Volume 45 , Issue 3 , July 1951 , pp. 476 - 494
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 1951

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References

1 Signed at The Hague, April 12, 1930. For complete text, see League of Nations Doc. C.351.M.145.1930.V.14, p. 31; Hudson, International Legislation, Vol. V, p. 359; this JOURNAL, Supp., Vol. 24 (1930), p. 192.

2 Research in International Law: Draft Conventions on Nationality, Responsibility of States, Territorial Waters, this JOURNAL, Spec. Supp., Vol. 23 (1929), p. 29.

3 Argentina, Flournoy and Hudson, A Collection of Nationality Laws (1929), p. 10; Bolivia, R. H. Fitzgibbon (ed.), The Constitutions of the Americas (1948), p. 38; Brazil, ibid., pp. 87-88; Chile, ibid., p. 139; Cuba, ibid., p. 228; Panama, ibid., pp. 605-606; Paraguay, ibid., p. 657; Peru, ibid., p. 668; Uruguay, ibid., p. 721. See also Harvard Research, loc. cit., pp. 80-82.

4 Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.: Austria, pp. 18-19; China, p. 175; Denmark, p. 214; Finland, p. 237; Germany, p. 306; Hungary, p. 337; Japan, p. 382; The Netherlands, p. 441; Norway, p. 453; Poland, p. 479; Rumania, p. 497; Sweden,p. 545; Switzerland, p. 560; Turkey, p. 570; U.S.S.R., p. 512

5 U. S. C. 601.

6 Ibid. This does not apply if the American parent at the time of the child's birth was abroad employed by the Government, or was a member of an international agency in which the United States participates, or employed by an American educational, scientific, philanthropic, religious, commercial, or financial organization.

7 Laws of England, Supplement, 1949, Hailsham ed., pp. 74-75.

8 See supra.

9 Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.: China, p. 175; Italy, p. 363; Japan, p. 382; Poland, p.480; Turkey, p. 570

10 See supra.

11 Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.: Belgium, p. 29; Denmark, p. 214; Egypt, p. 227; Germany, p. 306; Hungary, p. 339; Italy, p. 363; The Netherlands, p. 441; Norway, p. 454; Sweden, p. 546; Turkey, p. 570; United States, 8 U. S. C. 601,604.

12 Hackworth, Digest (1941), Vol. III , p. 11.

13 Laws of England, op. cit., p. 74.

14 Hackworth, op. cit., p. 10.

15 Oppenheim, International Law (6th ed., 1947), Vol. I, p. 610.

16 Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.: Denmark, p. 214; Germany, p. 306; Iceland, p. 344; Norway, p. 453; Rumania, p. 497; Sweden, p. 545.

17 Ibid., p. 237.

18 8 U. S. C. 605.

19 Ibid.

20 Cf. Committee of Experts for the Progressive Codification of International Law, Report submitted by M. Rundstein, League of Nations Doc. C.43.M.18.1926.V., p. 12; this JOURNAL, Spec. Supp., Vol. 20 (1926), p. 22.

21 Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.: Belgium, p. 29; Czechoslovakia, p. 206; Poland, p. 480.

22 Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.: Denmark, p. 214; Iceland, p. 344; Norway, p. 453; Rumania, p. 497; Sweden, p. 545; United Kingdom, Oppenheim, op. cit., p. 597, n. 1.

23 In this respect the resolution adopted by the Institute of International Law in 1896 is obviously unacceptable: “ A legitimate child follows the nationality with which its father was clothed on the day of its birth, or on the day when the father died.” Scott (ed.), Resolutions of the Institute of International Law (1934), p. 133.

24 League of Nations Doc. C.226.M.113.1930.V.; this JOURNAL, Supp., Vol. 24 (1930), p. 206.

25 For the states which now follow this principle see Report Based on Replies to Part I, Sec. G (Nationality) of the Questionnaire on the Legal Status and Treatment of Women, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82 (Feb. 28, 1949), p. 13.

26 The convention came into force in 1938 when it had been ratified or adhered to by the following ten states: Brazil, Canada, China, India, Monaco, The Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Subsequently, Belgium, Burma, and Australia ratified the convention. L. N. T. S., Vol. CLXXIX (1937), p. 91; Vol. CXCVI (1939), p. 476; Vol. CC (1940), p. 539; Treaties and Conventionsin the Field of the Nationality of Women, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/79, (Jan. 21, 1949), p. 17.

27 Italics added.

28 Supra, p. 478.

29 Report of the Inter-American Commission of Women to the 8th International Conference Of American States on the Political and Civil Eights of Women (1938), p. 85.

30 Supra, p. 476.

31 Cf. the resolution adopted by the International Law Association in 1924, which provides that every child born within the state is a citizen; unless the alien father, or mother, or guardian registers the child for another nationality, but the child may within a year's time after reaching the age of twenty-one claim re-admission unconditionally. W. A. Bewes (ed.), Transactions of the International Law Association (1925), p. 125.

32 The International Law Association had proposed in 1924 that “legitimation shall have no effectas to the nationality of the legitimated person...”Ibid., p. 126.

33 Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.: Albania, p. 8; Czechoslovakia, pp. 202, 204; Ecuador, p. 224; Hungary, p. 340; Iraq, p. 351; Mexico, p. 429; Nicaragua, p. 452; Norway, p. 456; Switzerland, p. 558; the Vatican City, p. 637; Venezuela,p. 642.

34 Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.: Afghanistan, p. 3; Argentina, p. 11; Haiti, p. 329; Norway, p. 455; Sweden, p. 547; Turkey, p. 569; United States, 8 U. S. C. 713.

35 Japan, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 382; Poland, ibid., p.480.

36 Ibid., Albania, p. 5; China, p. 177; Poland, p. 480. It should be noted that the laws of many states make no provisions concerning adoption.

37 Austria, ibid., p. 26; Rumania, ibid., p. 497; United States, 8 U. S. C. 716, the adopting parent or both parents must be citizens of the United States, the child must be adopted before the age of sixteen, and the latter must have resided two years in the United States; Yugoslavia, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 398.

38 See Shanks v. Dupont, 3 Peters 242 (1830).

39 C. Seckler-Hudson, Statelessness: With Special Reference to the United States(1934), pp. 23-25; W. E.Waltz, The Nationality of Married Women (1937), pp. 14-16; U. S. Congress, House of Representatives, Effects of Nationality upon Marriage, Hearings before Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, U. S. House of Representatives, 70th Cong., 1st Sess., Hearing No. 70.1.8, May 9, 1928, p. 3.

40 Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 59.

41 Ibid., p. 577.

42 Ibid., p. 59.

43 Ibid., p. 601.

44 Law of Sept. 22, 1922, better known as the Cable Act. Ibid., p. 609.

45 Seckler-Hudson, op. cit., p. 24.

46 Report of the First Committee of the 1930 Codification Conference, League of Nations Doc. A.19.1931.V., p. 4 ; this JOURNAL, Supp., Vol. 24 (1930), p. 228.

47 Afghanistan, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 3; Bolivia, Effects of Nationality, op. cit., p. 6; Egypt, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 5 ; Germany, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 309; Haiti, ibid., pp. 328-329; Hungary, ibid., p. 341; India, op. cit., U.N.Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 5; Iran, Effects of Nationality, op. cit., p. 6; Iraq, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.,p. 351; Ireland, Effects of Nationality, op. cit., p. 6; New Zealand (only Western Samoa and Cook Islands), op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 5; Palestine, Effects of Nationality, op. cit., p. 6; Poland, Flournoy and Hudson,op. cit., p. 481; Peru, Effects of Nationality, op. cit., p. 6; Siam, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 5; Spain, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit.,550; Switzerland, ibid., p. 560; Union of South Africa, op. cit.,U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 5.

48 U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, ibid., p. 5.

49 Argentina, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 13; Australia, Addendum to the Report Based on Replies to Part I, Sec. G (Nationality) of the Questionnaire on the Legal Status and Treatment of Women, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82/Add. 2 (March 23,1949), p. 1; Bulgaria, Study on the Position of Stateless Persons, U.N. Doc. E/1112/Add 1 (May 16, 1949), p. 16; Brazil, Canada, Chile, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 4; Colombia, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 181; Cuba, Czechoslovakia, El Salvador,Guatemala, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 4; Mexico, Addendum to the Report... on Treatment of Women, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82/ Add. 1 (Feb. 25,1949), p. 1; New Zealand (except Western Samoa and Cook Islands), op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 8; Paraguay, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 471; Rumania, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/1112/Add. 1, p. 16; United Kingdom, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN./6/82/Add. 2, p. 11; United States, 8 U. S. C. 710, 711; U.S.S.E., Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 512; Uruguay, ibid., p. 629; Venezuela, op.cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 4; Yugoslavia, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/1112/Add. 1, p. 16.

50 In Greece, the marriage ceremony must have taken place in the Greek Orthodox Church, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 5; in Liberia, the woman must be a negro, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 414.

51 Czechoslovakia (excluding Slovakia, unless a Slovakian husband loses his nationality because of military service in a foreign country), op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 8; Hungary, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., pp. 340-341; Iraq, ibid., p. 351; Poland, ibid., p. 481; Spain, ibid., p. 538; Switzerland, ibid., p. 558.

52 Austria, change affects wife if she has become Austrian by marriage, League of Nations Doc. C.73.M.38.1929.V., p. 89; Canada, ehange affects wife if she has become British by marriage, and the Governor-in-Council directs it, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/ 82, p. 7; China, change affects wife if husband was naturalized Chinese and acquired another nationality subsequently, ibid., p. 7; Finland, change affects wife if she has become Finnish by marriage, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 240;France, may affect a foreign-born wife if the husband is denationalized as a penalty, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 7; Germany, wife is affected if husband is a deserter and she is living with him, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., pp. 310-311; New Zealand, the Minister of Interior has the power to extend denaturalization of the husband to the wife, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 7; Norway, wife affected if the husband was born abroad and had not lived in Norway by the age of twenty-two, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., pp. 455-456; Sweden, same as Norway, mutatis mutandis, ibid., p. 548; Yugoslavia, wife is affected if the husband is denationalized because he is from a country which was at war with Yugoslavia, unless the wife can prove she had no connection with the husband or that she is of the same nationality as the peoples of Yugoslavia, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN. 6/82, p. 7.

53 Argentina, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 12; Australia, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN. 6/82/Add. 2, p. 2; Belgium, Brazil, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 8; Bulgaria, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 168; Canada, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 8; Chile, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p.170; Colombia, Cuba, France, Guatemala, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 8; Lebanon, Effects of Nationality, op. cit., p. 10; Mexico, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82/Add. 1, p. 2; Monaco, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 437;India, New Zealand, Pakistan, op. cit, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 8; Paraguay, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 471;Rumania, ibid., p. 497; Syria, ibid., p. 302; Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 8; United States, 8 U. S. C. 710, 711; Uruguay, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 629; Venezuela, Yugoslavia, op. cit., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 8.

54 Albania, if living with husband, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 7; Finland, wife must reside in Finland, ibid., p. 238; Italy, if living with husband, ibid., p. 365; Norway, wife must reside in Norway, ibid., p. 455; Switzerland, naturalization includes the wife if no exception is made by the Federal Government, ibid, p. 557; Vatican City, wife must be domiciled in the Vatican City, ibid., p. 636.

55 Siam, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 43; Vatican City, Flournoy and Hudson, op. oit., p. 636.

56 Ibid., p. 414.

57 Other nations require at least one of the following: application, residence, declaration, naturalization, decree, authorization, on request, on permission of the Minister of Interior, registration, sovereign ordinance. Most common are declaration and residence. Harvard Research, op. cit., pp. 112-113.

58 If the woman is a negro, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 414.

59 If the woman is domiciled in the Vatican City, ibid., p. 636.

60 Albania, Flournoy and Hudson, op. cit., p. 7; Japan, ibid., pp. 382,384; Portugal, ibid., pp. 491-492; and Turkey, ibid., p. 571.

61 It is interesting to note the many and varied types of aliens who are inadmissible to the United States: imbeciles; idiots; feebleminded; epileptics; those suffering from constitutional psychopathic inferiority; those suffering from insanity; thosesuffering from tuberculosis (any form); chronic alcoholics; illiterates; anarchists; opposers of organized government; advocates of violent overthrow of government; those with records of crimes involving moral turpitude; prostitutes or persons who have profited from prostitution; those with loathsome or dangerous contagious diseases, including the following: actinomycosis, amebiasis, blastomycosis, favus, filariasis, gonorrhea, granuloma inguinale, keratoconjunctivitis infections, leishmaniasis, leprosy, lymphogranuloma venereum, mycetoma, paragoniamiasis, ringworm of scalp, schistosomiasis, and yaws. Summary of United States Immigration Laws, U. S. Dept. of Justice, Immigration and Naturalization Service, April 15, 1946, pp. 1-2; AGO 14268, Dept. of the Army and Air Force, Feb. 11, 1949, pp. 2-3.

62 Scott, op. cit., p. 134.

63 Bewes, op. cit., p. 125.

64 Ibid., p. 126.

65 Harvard Research, op. cit., pp. 69-76.

66 Observations of the Preparatory Committee, League of Nations Doe. C.73.M.38. 1929.V., p. 94.

67 Report of the First Committee of the Conference, League of Nations Doe. A.191. 1931.V., p. 2.

68 Arts. 10 and 11 of the convention, while also concerned with marriage, are designed to eliminate dualnationality. For complete text, see League of Nations Doc. C.351.M. 145.1930. V.14., p. 31; also this JOURNAL, Supp., Vol. 24 (1930), p. 192.

69 Colombia, Art. 10; Cuba, Arts. 9, 10, 11; Denmark, Arts. 5, 11; Japan, Art. 10; The Netherlands, Arts. 8, 9, 10; Sweden, Art. 11, second sentence; Switzerland, Art. 10. Op. cit., League of Nations Doc. A.19.1931.V., pp. 2, 6.

70 League of Nations Doc. C.228.M.115.1930.V. (Conf. C.D.I.), p. 14; this JOURNAL, Supp., Vol. 24 (1930), p. 183.

71 “ These Articles... would, if ratified, give recognition in an international convention to theold idea of the subordinate position of women in the matter of nationality and to the old custom by which a woman's nationality was made to depend upon that of her husband.” “Proposals of the Committee of Representatives of Women's International Organizations,” Report by the Secretary-General on the Nationality of Women,League of Nations Doc. A.19.1931.V., p. 8.

72 For a more detailed defense of women's equality on matters of nationality, see ibid., p. 10.

73 Ibid., p. 1.

74 Observations by the Committee of Representatives of Women's International Organizations, League of Nations Doe. A.23.1932.V., pp. 2-3.

75 Report on Studies by the League of Nations in the Field of Nationality of Women, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/84,Feb. 7, 1949, 17 pp.

76 U. S. Treaty Series, No. 875; this JOURNAL, Supp., Vol. 28 (1934), p. 61.

77 International Conferences of American States, 1933-1940, pp. 106-107.

78 Hudson, International Legislation, Vol. VI, p. 596; this JOURNAL, Supp., Vol. 28(1934), p. 63.

79 International Conferences of American States, 1933-1940, pp. 108-109.

80 U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/82, p. 4.

81 Commission on the Status of Women, U.N. Background Paper No. 26 (Nov. 25, 1947), pp. 1-3.

82 Australia, Byelorussian S.S.R., China, Costa Bica, Denmark, France, Guatemala, India, Mexico, Syria, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States, U.S.S.R., and Venezuela. U.N. Doc. E/281/Rev. 1 (March 15, 1947), p. 1.

83 Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization, U.N. Doc. A/65(June 30, 1946), p. 19.

84 U.N. Doc. E/281/Rev. 1, p. 10.

85 What the U.N. is Doing for the Status of Women, U.N. Publications (1948), pp. 10-12.

86 U.N. Doc. E/1065 (Aug. 30, 1948), p. 29.

87 U.N. Docs. E/CN.6/82; E/CN.6/82/Add. 1, 2, 3 ; E/CN.6/79.

88 Report of Third Session of Commission on the Status of Women, U.N. Doc. E/1462 (July 27, 1949), p. 3.

89 U.N. Doc. A/811, Dee. 16, 1948; this JOUENAL, Supp., Vol. 43 (1949), p. 130. More general consideration of the entire problem of statelessness is being given by the Economic and Social Council, the International Law Commission, and the Secretariat of the United Nations. By resolution of Aug. 8, 1949, an ad hoc committee of nine governments later three more were added was appointed by ECOSOC to consider the desirability of a draft convention on the status of stateless persons and to consider the means of eliminating statelessness. The report is to be submitted by the Secretary General to the Member Governments for comment and thence to ECOSOC. The governments represented on the committee are: Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, France, Israel, Poland, United Kingdom, United States, U.S.S.R., and Venezuela. U.N. Docs. E/1517 (Aug. 11, 1949), p. 3 ; E/1518 (Aug. 11, 1949), pp. 1-2. The questions of statelessness and nationality were selected by the International Law Commission for codification, but did not receive top priority, which went to the law of treaties, arbitral procedure, and the regime of the high seas. Report of the International Law Commission, First Sess., April 12-June 9, 1949, U.N. Doc. A/925 (June 24, 1949), p. 3; this JOURNAL, Supp., Vol. 44 (1950), p. 7. The Secretariat, besides compiling information for the Commission on the Status of Women and ECOSOC, has released a mimeographed Study on the Position of Stateless Persons, U.N. Docs. E/1112, Vol. I (Feb. 1, 1949), and E/1112/Add. 1, Vol. II (May 15,1949).

90 See letters to the League of Nations from the Governments of Japan, The Netherlands and Rumania, League of Nations Doc. A.15.1932.V., pp. 7-9.

91 It should be noted that in some cases, a woman may possess two nationalities. In some respects this is an advantage over having one nationality, and certainly better than having no nationality. However, a state cannot extend diplomatic protection to a national against another state also claiming the person as a national. See Art. 4 of the Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws. In solving the conflicts of dual nationality, international tribunals have employed the principle of “active nationality.” Briggs, The Law of Nations (1946), p. 165.