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The State of the City of the Vatican Extradition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 April 2017

Gordon Ireland
Gordon Ireland*
Affiliation:
Harvard Law School
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Extract

A composite picture of the status of the Papacy in international law as described by the text-book writers down to 1929 has notably clear outlines. From the 8th century until 1870, the Pope, in addition to his spiritual authority as supreme head of the Roman Catholic Church, had, except for brief intervals, the rights of temporal sovereignty as head of a state. In that year Rome was occupied on September 20 by an Italian army, the occupation was ratified by popular vote, and the city made the capital of the Kingdom of Italy by the Italian Parliament on October 2; on October 9 it was annexed by royal decree, which was confirmed by law of December 31; in consequenceof which the Papal States disappeared and the temporal power of the Popewas ended. On May 13, 1871, the Italian Parliament enacted the Law of Guarantees which regulated the status of the Pope, so far as Italy was concerned, and purported to extend to him all necessary safeguards for the freeexercise throughout the world of his spiritual authority. This law securedto him personal inviolability and exemption from criminal liability, thoughhe remained subject to the civil courts of Italy, and it bestowed or recognized his enjoyment of certain rights and privileges belonging in other cases to temporal sovereigns, such as maintaining an armed force, freedom of correspondence and sending and receiving representatives to and from states beyond Italy. As a municipal statute, the Law of Guarantees could conferno international status upon the Pope, and although it might have been made the basis of treaty agreement between Italy and any Catholic or other Power, it was, so far as known, never so treated, and therefore remained legallyalways capable of change by Italy alone. The Popes never formally acceptedthe provisions of this law nor the endowment granted by it, and in protest against the events of 1870 they objected to any Catholic sovereignvisiting the King of Italy, and remained after their election perpetually with in the Vatican without emerging on to other Italian soil. The Poperetained the right to make with sovereign states concordats concerningecclesiastical affairs, as before his loss of temporal power; and continued toexercise the rights of active and passive legation as assured by the Law of Guarantees. The Papal household subsisted on food and water whose deprivation would have threatened life itself had Italy joined for a month inthe policy of non-intercourse adopted for the Pope personally. The statusof the Pope in international law was abnormal and unique.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Journal of International Law , Volume 27 , Issue 2 , April 1933 , pp. 271 - 289
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 1933

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References

1 Law No. 214, Title I, Arts. 1-18, Prerogatives of the Sovereign Pontiff and of the Holy See; Title II, Arts. 14-19, Relations of the State with the Church. 31 Race. Uff. 1014. Halleck, International Law (4th ed. ), Vol. 1, p. 153; Bompard, , Raoul, Le Pape et le Droit des Gens (1888), p. 191; Bonfils, Manuel de Droit International Public (8th ed. Fauchille), t. 1, p. 735; Le Fur, Louis, Le Saint Siège et le Droit de Gens (Paris, 1930), p. 216. Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Rome, 1870-71, British State Papers, 1871, Vol. 72; 62 Br. & For. St. Papers, 352; 65 ib. 638. Google Scholar

2 Annual grant of 3, 225, 000 lire. The right to arrears of this endowment was cut off by limitation in five years, and was not transmissible. So the heirs of Pope Pius IX, who brought suit in the civil tribunal of Rome against the Italian Treasury for the seven or eight years' income he had refused to touch, lost in the first instance and on two appeals. Mastai-Ferretti c. Finanze, Corte d’AppeUo di Roma, 16 giugno, 1883, 17 Ann. Giur. Ital. III , 461;35 Giur. Ital. II, 556, with note; 9 Foro Ital. I, 43, with note by C. F. Gabba; 14 Circ. Giur. II, 309. Del Drago c. Finanze, Corte di Cassazione di Roma, 5 marzo, 1885, 19 Ann. Giur. Ital. II, 30; 37 Giur. Ital. I, §3, 81; 10 Foro Ital. I, 130, with note by C. F. Gabba; 16 Cire. Giur. II. 173; 10 Filangieri, II, 187. Bompard, op. dt. 211, 223.

2 Annual grant of 3, 225, 000 lire. The right to arrears of this endowment was cut off by limitation in five years, and was not transmissible. So the heirs of Pope Pius IX, who brought suit in the civil tribunal of Rome against the Italian Treasury for the seven or eight years' income he had refused to touch, lost in the first instance and on two appeals. Mastai-Ferretti c. Finanze, Corte d’AppeUo di Roma, 16 giugno, 1883, 17 Ann. Giur. Ital. III , 461;35 Giur. Ital. II, 556, with note; 9 Foro Ital. I, 43, with note by C. F. Gabba; 14 Circ. Giur. II, 309. Del Drago c. Finanze, Corte di Cassazione di Roma, 5 marzo, 1885, 19 Ann. Giur. Ital. II, 30; 37 Giur. Ital. I, §3, 81; 10 Foro Ital. I, 130, with note by C. F. Gabba; 16 Cire. Giur. II. 173; 10 Filangieri, II, 187. Bompard, op. dt. 211, 223.

3 Various diplomatic difficulties arose on the occasions of the visits of the German Emperor Wilhelm II to Pope Leo X III on Oct. 12, 1888 (21 Rev. Dr. Int. 83), and of President Loubet of France to King Victor Emmanuel III in 1904 (32 Martens, Nouv. Rec. Gén. de Traités,2* Sér. 243). The visit made by King Victor Emmanuel II to Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria in 1873 could be returned only in Venice, in 1875. After the World War, the Holy See found it expedient to withdraw the Non Exp edit and to allow foreign Catholic sovereigns to visit Rome. Encyclical, Pacem, Dei munus, May 23, 1920. 12 Acta Apost. Sedis, 209. Bagnani, Gilbert, Rome and the Papacy (London, 1929), p. 247. Pope Pius XI was visited by King Albert and Queen Elizabeth of the Belgians on March 28, 1922, and by King George V and Queen Mary of England on May 9, 1923.

4 Early in the morning of Dec. 20, 1929, Pope Pius XI went to celebrate mass at the Basilica of St. John Lateran, the first time a Pope had been outside the Vatican since Sept. 20, 1870. The King and Queen of Italy were received by the Pope in the Vatican on Dec. 2, 1929, Mussolini on Feb. 11, 1932, and the Governor of Rome on June 15, 1932.

5 Racc. Uff. 1929, II, 1862; 21 Acta Apost. Sedis (No. 6, June 7, 1929), 209; 2 Apollinaris,233; 21 Martens, Traités de Dr. Int. 3e S6r. 18; 15 Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht, 123; 24 Rev. Dr. Int. Privé, 551; this Journal, Vol. 23 (1929), Supp. p. 187.

6 Law No. 810 and Royal Decree No. 851 of May 27, 1929. Racc. Uff. 1929, II, 1861, 1874.

7 Racc. Uff. 1929, II, 1883; 21 Acta Apost. Sedis, 295. Negotiations began Aug. 6, 1926, between Prof. Francesco Pacelli, for the Vatican, and Domenico Barone, for Italy.

8 (i) Fundamental Law, (ii) Law as to the Sources of the Law, (iii) Law as to Nationality and Sojourn, (iv) Law of Administrative Organization, (v) Law of Economic, Commercial and Professional Organization, (vi) Law of Public Safety, all of June 7, 1929. 21 Acta Apost. Sedis, Supp. June 8, 1929; 3 Apollinaris, 64, 66, 73, 78, 81, 83; 21 Martens, Traités, 40, 43, 51; Le Fur, op. cit. 250, 254, 264, 272, 277, 281; Mirkine-Guetzevitch, B. , Las Nuevas Constituciónes del Mundo (Madrid, 1931), 543, 547, 556, 564, 568; 24 Rev. Dr. Int. Privé, 565, 568. (vii) Religious Administration, May 30, 1929, 3 Apollinaris, 30, and Mirkine-Guetzevitch, op. cit. 572. (viii) Health Service, Sept. 28, 1929, Telegraph and Telephone Service, Nov. 23, 1929, Circulation of Vehicles, Jan. 31, 1930, Monopolies, May 31, 1930, Salt and Tobacco, June 2, 1930, 3 Apollinaris, 499, for which see list.

9 Law No. 847 of May 27, 1929, Concerning Marriage (to carry out Art. 34 of the Concordat), Racc. Uff. 1929, II, 1883; 21 Acta Apost. Sedis (No. 8, July 8, 1929), 364. Law No. 848 of May 27, 1929, Religious Patrimony, Racc. Uff. 1929, II, 1886. And, also as to marriage, cf. Law No. 916 of June 7, 1929, Racc. Uff. 1929, II, 1900; Law No. 1159 of June 24, 1929, Racc. Uff. 1929, III, 2723; Royal Decree No. 1355, Oct. 15, 1931, Racc. Uff. 1931, VI, 5881. See, also, “ Catholic Action Dispute in Italy, ” 34 Current History (1931), 775; 35 ib. 29-40, 137; “ La nouvelle législation italienne sur le mariage, ” Jules Valéry, 57 J. Dr. Int. (1910), 289318.

10 “ The Vatican” is used hereafter throughout to mean “ The State of the City of the Vatican. ”

11 Castel Gandolfo was constructed by Pope Urban VIII in 1629 as a summer residence for the Popes, but of course has not been used as such since 1870.

12 La Sarthe decree, Feb. 16, 1894; No. 235, May 5, 1911; 116 Bull. de Cass. (Crim. ), 453;1912 Crim. Dali. P. I, 330. Yonne decree, Feb. 17, 1894, No. 280, June 12, 1913; 118 Bull. de Cass. (Crim. ), 557; 1916 Crim. Dali. P. I, 169. 37 J. Dr. Int. Privé (1910), 374-389;38 ib. (1911), 1212-1262. 18 Rev. G&n. de Dr. Int. Pub. (1911), 589-620; 21 ib. (1914), 339-379; this Journal , Vol. 8 (1914), p. 864. Cf. Acta Apost. Sedis (1909), 390; 2 ib. (1910), 167.

13 Declaration of Barcelona, April 20, 1921. 7 League of Nations, Treaty Ser. , 73. Later ratified by Great Britain, 11 ib. 410, and accepted by France, 11 ib. 410, and by Italy, 92ib. 363, as binding without ratification.

14 Bonfils (Fauchille) op. cit. t . 1, pt. 1, p. 751; 43 J. Dr. Int. (1916), 1373; 23 Rev. Gén. de Dr. Int. Pub. 606; 44 J Dr. Int. (1917), 1198.

15 Monetary Convention of Aug. 2, 1930, Arts. 1-10. Royal Decree-Law No. 25, Jan. 13, 1931, Racc. Uff. 1931, I , 441, converted into Law, No. 510, April 9, 1931, Race. Uff. 1931, III, 2404; 33 Current History, 140.

16 Royal Decree No. 1182, June 9, 1930, Racc. Uff. 1930, V, 5061, 5062. Le Fur, op. eft. , 286. Rates: 3 Apollinaris, 498.

17 Royal Decree No. 1182, June 9, 1930, Race. Uff. 1930, V, 5061, 5070.

18 Stamps of the former Roman States were in use from 1852 to 1870, when they were superseded by those of Italy.

19 40 L. N. Tr. Ser. , p. 19.

20 The signatory for the Vatican was William Albert Samuel Hewins, the London economist.

21 102 L. N. Tr. Ser. , p. 245. Ratified by the Vatican June 26, 1930; by Italy, Sept. 10, 1930. Art. 10, Arbitration.

22 Signed at St. Petersburg, July 10/22, 1875. 57 L. N. Tr. Ser. , p. 212; 66 Br. & For. St. Papers, 19. Paris Regulations, Oct. 29, 1925, 57 L. N. Tr. Ser. , p. 220; 78 ib. 489; 88 ib. 347. The Vatican became a party of the sixth class on June 1, 1929.

23 Signed at Washington, Nov. 25, 1927, in effect from Jan. 1, 1929; Art. 20, Arbitration. 84 L. N. Tr. Ser. , p. 97; this Journal Vol. 23 (1929), Supp. , p. 40. Letter of Jan. 4, 1932, from League of Nations Secretariat. The conference at Prague in 1929 allotted wave lengths between the European States.

24 Bonfils (Fauchille), op. di. t. 1, pt. 2, p. 631.

25 Royal Decree No. 1182, June 9, 1930, Racc. Uff. 1930, V, 5061, 5076.

26 The Vatican system evidently connects with the sewers of Rome. Royal Decree-Law No. 1356, Aug. 22, 1930, Racc. Uff. 1930, V, 5374. Law No. 428, April 9, 1931, Racc. Uff. 1931, II, 2126.

27 , Williamson, , Benedict, The Treaty of the Lateran (London, 1929), p. 100. Google Scholar

28 15 Dr. e Giur. (1899-1900), II, 546; 2 Riv. Dir. Ini. (1899), 551; 31 J. Dr. Int. Privé(1904), 213.

29 16 Rev. Gén. de Dr. Int. Pub. (1909), 378.

30 38 ib. (1931), 345.

31 Public press, Mar. 22, 1932.

32 Ib.

33 Halleck, , International Law (4th ed. ), Vol. 1, pp. 95n. 2, 302n. 2. Google Scholar

34 Bonfils (Fauchille), op. cit. t. 1, p. 730. Halleck, op. cit. Vol. 1, p. 311. Phillimore, , Commentaries upon International Law (3d ed. ), Vol. 2, p. 358. There have been more than 150 usurpations of the Pope's temporal power, latterly in 1798-1800, 1809-1814, 1848-1849;and 52 expulsions of Popes from Rome. Google Scholar

35 See supra, note 8.

36 E. g. Pius X, 1 Acta Apost. Sedis (1909), 294, 7 ib. (1914), 73; Benedict XV, 7 ib. (1914), 131, 14 ib. (1921), 512; Pius XI, 14 ib. (1922), 600, 19 ib. (1927), 217. Since 1927, except citations, only the disposing part of the sentences have been published, annually. In business of the Secretary of State, “ feliciter regnante” seems to have been first employed by the present Pope.

37 E. g. 14 Acta Apost. Sedis (1922), 395.

38 Art. 7. Cf. , supra, note 1.

39 Halleck, op. cit. Vol. 1, p. 128 n. 2. 11 Rev. Gén. de Dr. Int. Pub. (1904), 220.

40 Martinucci c. Theodoli, Corte d’Appello, Rome, Nov. 9, 1882, 16 Ann. Giur. Ital. 505, 1883 Foro Ital. I, 664; Orlando, V. E. , I Tribunali Vaticani (1883), 14 Circ. Giur. 247; 31J. Dr. Int. Privé (1904), 220. Italian courts will receive in proof, copies of documents in the Vatican or Dataria authenticated by the signatures and seals of the usual Papal officers Ordine Mauriziano e. Garroni, Corte d’Appello, Rome, July 14, 1899, 41 Monit. dei Trib. (1900), 998; 29 J. Dr. Int. Privé(1902), 174.

41 Bompard, op. cit. p. 194; Brusa, E. , La Juridiction du Vatican 15 Rev. de Droit Int. (1883), 113; Beaulieu, , Leroy- Anatole, “ Le Pape Lion X III et Vltalie sous le Rigime de la Loi des Garanties” 59 Rev. des Deux Monds (1883), 752. Woywod, Stanislaus, A Practical Commentary on the Code of Canon Law (New York, 1925), Vol. I, p. 101, Vol. II, pp. 203-214. Google Scholar

42 Lex Propia, June 29, 1908, 41 Acta Sanctae Sedis, 440; 1 Acta Apost. Sedis, 20.

43 Woywod, op. cit. Vol. II, p. 199.

44 Canon 1557, sec. 1.

45 Heritiers de Plessis-Bellifère c. Léon X III, pape, et als. Trib. civ. de Montdidier, Feb. 4, 1892, Jur. Gén. (Dalloz), 1895, II, 462; 19 J. Dr. Int. Privé (1892), 447. Com d’appel d’Amiens (lr’ Ch. ), Feb. 21, 1893, Jur. Gin. (Dalloz) 1895, II, 457. Cass. Req. March 16, 1894, Pand. Fr. 1893, 1, 17; 20 J. Dr. Int. Privé (1893), 384, 21 ib. (1894), 835. Calvo, Le Droit International (5° éd. ), t. 6, sec. 29, pp. 25-28; Lainé, A. , “ Des personnes morales en droit international Privé, ’ 20 J. Dr. Int. Privé (1893), 273; Moreau, Félix;, “ De la capacité des Stats étrangers pour recevoir par testament en France, ” 19 J. Dr. Int. Privé (1892), 337; Pillet, A. , Note, Rec. Gén. (Sirey) 1895. II, 57; Austria, 22 J. Dr. Int. Privé (1895), 226.

46 Corte d’Appello, Rome, Aug. 30, 1899; supra, note 27.

47 Buell, Leslie, , Raymond “ The Vatican and the New World, ” 16 Current History (1922), 977; Ryan, Google Scholar , James H. , “ The Vatican's World Policy, ” 17 ib. 429. Google Scholar

48 Moore, , I Int. Law Dig. , 63; 4 ib. 734. Google Scholar

49 Canons 265, 267. Woywod, op. cit. I, 102, II, 639. Cf. White, Andrew, 95 Atl. Monthly, 107; this Journal , Vol. 5 (1911), p. 925.

50 Action of France in 1894, Hungary in 1895. Wheaton, Elements of International Law(6th ed. ), Vol. l , p . 135; Despagnet, Frantz, Cours de Droit International Public (1910, 4° ed. ), 206; Bonfils (Fauchille), op. cit, t. 1, pt. 1, p. 745. Circular of the Nuncio to the French Clergy, 1 Rev. Gén. Dr. Int. Pub. (1894), 487.

51 Westlake, International Law (2d ed. ), Pt. I, p. 39. Italian representation at the Vatican:Decree-Law No. 1882, Oct. 3, 1929, Racc. Uff. (1929), IV, 3426; converted into Law No. 2328, Dec. 30, 1929, Racc. Uff. (1930), I, 351.

52 On the veto of Italy, supported by Great Britain. Le Fur, op. cit. 75. M Birkenhead, International Law (1927, 6th ed. ),

53 Birkenhead, International Law (1927, 6th ed. ), 53:Bonfils (Fauchille), op. cit. t. 1, pt. 1, p. 743; Lawrence, The Principles of International Law (7th ed. ), 77; Oppenheim, International Law (4th ed. ), Vol. 1, sec. 106a; Wheaton, op. cit. 136. Notes of official character, 42 J. Dr. Ini. (1915), 304.

54 Decree of the Lieutenancy, No. 203, Aug. 25, 1916, Race. Uff. (1916), III, 2183; this Journal , Vol. 12 (1918), p . 769; Georges Scelle, Communication, 24 Rev. Gén. de Dr. Int. Pub. (1917), 244.

55 Protocols of Mar. 17, 1885, and Dec. 17, 1885, Moore, , 7 Int. Law Dig. , 6; Google Scholar Moore, , International Arbitrations (1898), V, 4825, 5043; 76 Br. & For. St. Papers, 293; Anales Dip. y Cons, de Colombia, Tomo 4 (1914), Apen. p. 894. Google Scholar

56 “ Convention of July 3, 1895. Moore, , Int. Arb. , V, 5018; Poujol, A. , “ Le Diffirend entre Haiti et Saint-Domingue 7 Rev. Gén. de Dr. Int. Pub. (1900), 437. Google Scholar

57 Treaty between Brazil and Bolivia, Nov. 17, 1903. Moore, , 1 Int. Law Dig. , 646; 6 ib. 440; 96 Br. & For. St. Papers, 383. Google Scholar

58 Treaty between Brazil and Peru, Sept. 8, 1909, 102 Br. & For. St. Papers, 199; treaty between Brazil and Bolivia, Aug. 12, 1910, Tratados Vigentes (Bolivia, 1925), Tomo I, p. 180.

59 This Journal , Vol. 9 (1915), p. 869; Birkenhead, op. cit. 53; Bompard, op. cit. 70;Dalloz, 8 Rep. Prat. (1920), 668. A review of Italian jurisprudence as to the juridical personality of religious associations is incorporated in the Instructions of the Sacred Congregation to all Superiors of Orders, Feb. 6, 1930, 22 Acta Apost. Sedis, 138.

60 Diplomatic relations of the U. S. with the Papal States, 1848-1870, Moore, Int. Law Dig. , 130; Fuller, Ch. J. , in Ponce v. R. C. Church (1908), 210 U. S. 296 at 318; Wigmore, , John H. , “ Should a Papal State be recognized internationally by the United States?”22 IU. Law Rev. (1928), 881. Google Scholar