¹ See generally, Consequential Courts: Judicial Roles in Global Perspective (Diana Kapiszewski, Gordon Silverstein & Robert A. Kagan eds., 2013).

² See Donnelly, Jack, Human Rights: A New Standard of Civilization?, 74 Int’l Aff. 1 (1998)Google Scholar.

³ See The Role of Domestic Courts in Treaty Enforcement (David Sloss ed., 2009); Sharon Weill, The Role of National Courts in Applying International Humanitarian Law (2014).

⁴ See Symposium, Exploring Comparative International Law, 109 AJIL 467–550 (2015); Roberts, Anthea, Comparative International Law? The Role of National Courts in Creating and Enforcing International Law, 60 Int’l & Comp. L. Q. 57 (2011)Google Scholar.

⁵ André N Ollkaemper, National Courts and the International Rule of Law 13, 55 (2011).

⁶ See Dai Ruijun , Guoji Renquan Tiaoyue de Guonei Shiyong Yanjiu: Quanqiu Shiye [Domestic Implementation of International Human Rights Treaties: Global Perspective] 254–95 (2013) (China); Renren, Gong, Implementing International Human Rights Treaties in China, in Bridging the Global Divide on Human Rights: A Canada-China Dialogue 99 (Mendes, Errol P. & Lalonde-Roussy, Anik eds., 2003)Google Scholar; Li, Zhaojie (James Li), The Role of Domestic Courts in the Adjudication of International Human Rights: A Survey of the Practice and Problems in China, in Enforcing International Human Rights in Domestic Courts 329 (Conforti, Benedetto & Francioni, Francesco eds., 1997)Google Scholar; Tang, Zheng Sophia, International Treaties in Chinese Private International Law, 42 Hong Kong L. J. 311 (2012)Google Scholar; Guo, Sanzhuan, Implementation of Human Rights Treaties by Chinese Courts: Problems and Prospects, 8 Chinese J. Int’l L. 161 (2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Huang, Jie, Direct Application of International Commercial Law in Chinese Courts: Intellectual Property, Trade, and International Transportation, 5 Manchester J. Int’l Econ. L. 105 (2008)Google Scholar; Yongping, Xiao & Weidi, Long, Selected Topics on the Application of the CISG in China, 20 PACE Int’l L. Rev. 61 (2008)Google Scholar; Wang Guanxian , Jinzhi Kuxing de Lilunyu Shijian [Theory and Practice Against Torture] 270–77 (2007) (China).

⁷ Deng Xiaoping, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol. 3 187–88 (1994).

⁸ Xianfa [Constitution] pmbl. (2004) (China).

⁹ Suli, Zhu, Political Parties in China’s Judiciary, 17 Duke J. Comp. & Int’l L. 533, 535, 538 (2006)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Randall Peerenboom, China’s Long March Toward Rule of Law 302–09 (2002).

¹¹ See Klein, Bradley, Democracy Optional: China and the Developing World’s Challenge to the Washington Consensus, 22 Ucla Pac. Basin L.J. 89 (2004)Google Scholar.

¹² Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers xv, xxii (1989).

¹³ Xingzheng Susong Fa [Administrative Procedure Law] [APL] (promulgated by the Nat’l People’s Cong., Apr. 4, 1989, effective Oct. 1, 1990) (China).

¹⁴ Guojia Peichang Fa [State Compensation Law] (promulgated by the Standing Comm. Nat’l People’s Cong., May 12, 1994, effective Jan. 1, 1995) (China), translated in 6 P.R.C. Laws 39.

¹⁵ Weidong, Ji, The Judicial Reform in China: The Status Quo and Future Directions, 20 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 185, 196 (2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶ See Songnian, Ying & Xiaojun, Yang , Guojia Peichang Ruogan Lilun yu Shijian Wenti [Some Theoretical and Practical Issues on State Compensation Law] 1 Chinese Legal Sc. 3, 3 (2005)Google Scholar (China).

¹⁷ Hou Meng , Zhongguo Zuigao Renmin Fayuan Yanjiu [A Study on the Supreme People’ Court Of China] 67–71 (2007) (China).

¹⁸ See, e.g., Zhou Qiang, Report on the Work of the Supreme People’s Court: Delivered at the Second Session of the Twelfth National People’s Congress on March 10, 2014, Xinhuanet (May 9, 2014), at http://news.xinhuanet.com/legal/2014-05/09/c_126481178.htm.

¹⁹ See Weidong, supra note 15, at 208 – 09.

²⁰ See Zhonggong Zhongyang Guanyu Quanmian Shenhua Gaige Ruogan Zhongda Wenti de Jueding [CCP Central Committee Decision on Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening Reforms], Xlnhuanet (Nov. 16, 2013) (China), at http://www.sn.xinhuanet.com/2013-ll/16/c_118166672.htm (parts IX and X).

²¹ See Zhonggong Zhongyang Guanyu Quanmian Tuijin Yifa Zhiguo Ruogan Zhongda Wenti de Jueding [CCP Central Committee Decision on Major Issues Concerning Promoting the Rule of Law], Xlnhuanet (Oct. 28, 2014) (China), at http://news.xinhua net.com/20l4-10/28/c_1113015330.htm; Xi Jinping , Guanyu “Zhonggong Zhongyang Guanyu Quanmian Tuijin Yifa Zhiguo Ruogan Zhongda Wenti de Juiding” [Notes on CCP Central Committee Decision on Major Issues Concerning Promoting the Rule of Law], Xlnhuanet (Oct. 28, 2014) (China), at http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/20l4-10/28/c_l 113015372.htm.

²² Administrative Procedure Law [APL of 2014], Art. 1 (amended by the Standing Comm. Nat’l People’s Cong., Nov. 11, 2014 effective May 1, 2015) (China).

²³ Id. Art. 3.

²⁴ Tieya, Wang, International Law in China: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, 221 Recueil Des Cours 195, 250—62 (1990)Google Scholar.

²⁵ See Cjuoji Tiaoyue yu Cjuonei Fa de Ouanxi [Relations between International Treaties and Domestic Law] 17, 40, 159 (Zhu Xiaoqing Huang Lie eds., 2000) (China).

²⁶ Chen Liping , Mingque Guoji Tiaoyuezai Woguo de Shiyong [The Application of Treaties in China Should Be Clarified], Legal Daily (Nov. 24, 2014) (China), available at http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/cwhhy/12jcwh/2014-11/24/content_1886934.htm.

²⁷ Id.

²⁸ Lifa Fa [Law on Legislation], (promulgated by the Nat’l People’s Cong., Mar. 15, 2000, effective July 1, 2000, amended by the Standing Comm. Nat’l People’s Cong., Mar. 13, 2015) (China).

²⁹ See Verdier, Pierre-Hugues & Versteeg, Mila, International Law in National Legal Systems: An Empirical Investigation, 109 AJIL 514 (2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁰ Nollkaemper, supra note 5, at 73.

³¹ Wang Yong , Tiaoyue zai Zhongguo Shiyong zhi Jiben Lilun Wenti Yanjiu [Fundamental Theory of the Application of Treaties in China] 146 (2007) (China).

³² See infra Part III.4.

³³ Minfa Tongze [General Principles of Civil Law] [GPCL] (promulgated by the Nat’l People’s Cong., Apr. 12, 1986, effective Jan. 1, 1987), 37 Fagui Huibian 1 (China). Unless otherwise indicated, translations of Chinese law provisions are not official translations.

³⁴ Tieya, supra note 24 at 332.

³⁵ APL of 1990, supra note 13, Art. 72.

³⁶ Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Dec. 10, 1984, 1465 U.N.T.S. 85, at https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/Chapter%20IV/iv-9.en.pdf The 1990 statement in quotes in the text accompanying note 97, infra.

³⁷ See ALP of 2014, supra note 22.

³⁸ See Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui Falu Weiyuanhui guanyu “Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Xingzheng Susong Fa Xiuzheng An (Cao’an)” Xiugai Qingkuang de Huibao [Report by the Legal Committee of National People’s Congress on the Amendment of Administrative Procedural Law (draft)], NPC (Aug. 31, 2014) (China), at http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/lfzt/2014/2014-08/31/content_1876868.htm.

³⁹ See ALP of 2014, supra note 22, Art. 63.

⁴⁰ See Wenhua Shan, The Legal Framework of EU-China Investment Relations: A Critical Appraisal, 210 (2005).

⁴¹ Id. at 77.

⁴² Hanqin, Xue & Qian, Jin, International Treaties in the Chinese Domestic Legal System, 8 Chinese J. Int’l L. 299, 308 (2009)Google Scholar.

⁴³ See Cai Congyan , Siren Jiegouxing Canyu Duobian Maoyi Tizhi [Private Structural Participation in the Multilateral Trade System] 265–68 (2007) (China).

⁴⁴ Zuigao Renmin Fayuan Guanyu Shenli Guoji Maoyi Xingzheng Anjian Ruogan Wenti de Guiding [Regulations of the Supreme People’s Court on Issues Concerning the Trial of Administrative Cases Relating to International Trade] (Promulgated by the Sup. People’s Ct., Aug. 27, 2002, effective Oct. 1, 2002), Sup. People’s Ct. Gaz. 165 (China).

⁴⁵ See Li Guoguang , “Guanyu Shenli Guoji Maoyi Xingzheng Anjian Ruogan Wenti de Guiding”Xinwen Fabu Hui Shang de Jianghua [Regulations of the Supreme People’s Court on Issues Concerning the Trial of Administrative Cases Relating to International Trade] (Aug. 29, 2002) (China), at http://www.lawxp.com/statute/s898388.html.

⁴⁶ Id.

⁴⁷ Renmin Fayuan Anli Xuan [Selected Collection of People’s Court Cases] 365–68 (Shen Deyong ed., 2013) (China).

⁴⁸ Id. at 366.

⁴⁹ Id. at 368.

⁵⁰ Langqinbiao Youxian Gongsi Su Guojia Gongshang Xingzheng Guanli Zongju Shangbiao Pingshen Weiyuanhui [Longqinbiao Co. Ltd. v. Trademark Review & Adjudication Bd.] (Beijing Interm. People’s Ct. Aug. 14, 2012) (China), at http://www.pkulaw.cn/case/pfnl_118497741.html?match=Exact.

⁵¹ Admittedly, the existing surveillance mechanisms of many, if not most, treaties are not effective enough to prompt states parties to incorporate treaties into their domestic legal systems.

⁵² Nollkaemper, supra note 5, at 73–81.

⁵³ Nanning XX Fuwu Youxian Zeren Gongsi Su Nanning Shi XX Ju [Nanning XX Serv. LLC v. Nanning XX Bureau] (Nanning Dist. People’s Ct., Jan. 10, 2012) (China), at http://www.pkulaw.cn/case/pfnl_118505863.html.

⁵⁴ Id.

⁵⁵ Id.

⁵⁶ Nollkaemper, supra note 5, at 147.

⁵⁷ Regulations of the Supreme People’s Court on Issues Concerning the Trial of Administrative Cases Relating to International Trade, supra note 47, Art. 9.

⁵⁸ Chongqing Zhengtong Yaoye Youxian Gongsi, Guojia Gongshang Xingzheng Guanli Zongju Shangbiao Pingshen Weiyuanhui yu Sichuan Huashu Dongwu Yaoye Youxian Gongsi [Chongqing Zhengtong Pharm. Co., Ltd. & Trademark Review & Adjudication Bd. of the State Admin. for Indus. & Commerce v. Sichuan Huashu Veterinary Pharm. Co., Ltd.] (China), at http://www.pkulaw.cn/case/PFnl_117526660.html.

⁵⁹ Id.

⁶⁰ Locke, John, Two Treatises of Government 365–66 (Laslett, Peter ed., 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶¹ Benvenisti, Eyal, Reclaiming Democracy: The Strategic Uses of Foreign and International Law by Domestic Courts, 102 AJIL 241, 245 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶² See Bartsch, Kerstin & Elberling, Björn, Jus Cogens vs. State Immunity, Round Two: The Decision of the European Court of Human Rights in the Kalogeropoulou et al. v. Greece and Germany Decision , 4 German L. J. 477, 478–79 (2003)Google Scholar. Jus Cogens norms are peremptory norms from which no derogation is permissible. See Alexander Orakhelashvili, Peremptory Norms in International Law 8 (2006).

⁶³ Bartsch & Elberling, supra note 62, at 480.

⁶⁴ Id.

⁶⁵ Id. at 481.

⁶⁶ Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Ger. v It.; Greece Intervening), 2012 ICJ Rep. 37, 39 (Feb. 3).

⁶⁷ Jouet, Mugambi, Spain’s Expanded Universal Jurisdiction to Prosecute Human Rights Abuses in Latin America, China, and Beyond, 35 GA. J. Int’l & comp. L. 495 (2007)Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Hanqin, Xue, Chinese Contemporary Perspectives on International Law: History, Culture and International Law, 355 Recueil Des Cours 41, 100–01 (2011)Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ Id. at 101–02; Jackson v. People’s Republic of China, 794 F. 2d 1490 (11th Cir. 1986); see also Sgro, Jill A., China’s Stance on Sovereign Immunity, 22 Colum. J. Transnat’L L. 101 (1983)Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property, Dec. 2, 2004, UN Doc. A/59/508, at https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/Chapter%20III/III-13.en.pdf.

⁷¹ See Reply Mem. of Law in Further Supp. of China’s Mot. to Dismiss, Morris v. People’s Republic of China, 478 F. Supp. 2d 561 (S.D.N.Y. 2007), 2006 WL 2581974.

⁷² Democratic Republic of the Congo v. FG Hemisphere Associates, [2011] 14 H.K.C.F.A.R. 95 (C.F.A.).

⁷³ Qi, Dahai, State Immunity, China and Its Shifting Position, 7 Chinese J. Int’l L. 307 (2008)Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ Zhongguoren Zai Haiwai Weihe Pingshou Qinghai [Why are Chinese Infringed Abroad?], Jfdaily.com (China), at http://newspaper.jfdaily.com/jfrb/html/20l4-05/22/content_l 16 9309.htm.

⁷⁵ See CCP Central Committee Decision on Major Issues Concerning Promoting the Rule of Law, supra note 21, Part VII, Art. 7.

⁷⁶ See, e.g., Xiao Mingqing , “Guojia Huomianquan”Zai Xijunzhan Susongan Zhong Shifou Shiyong [Are “National Immunity” Rights Applicable to Bacteria War Lawsuits?], 1 J. Hunan U. Arts & Sci. 23, 25—26 (2005) (China).

⁷⁷ “Chongqing Dahongzha” Shouhaizhe Zhengshi Qisu Riben, Zuigao Baqian Wan [Victims of “Chongqing Grand Bombing” Bring Lawsuit Against Japan and the Biggest Claim Reaches 80 Million Yuan], Beijing News (Sept. 11, 2012) (China), available at http://www.scopsr.gov.cn/shgj/shkx/201209/t20120911_181769.html.

⁷⁸ Erzhan Zhongguo Laogong Tangshan Zaisu Riqi [Following up Lawsuits Brought by Chinese Laborers Against Japanese Government and Enterprises], Nikkei (Mar. 27, 2014) (China), at http://cn.nikkei.com/politicsaeconomy/politicsasociety/8622-20l40327.html.

⁷⁹ Tang Guangqin & Tang Guangrong Su Ribenguo Zhengfu Minshi Qisushu [Complaint from Tang Guangqin & Tang Guangrong to the Japanese Government] (2012) (on file with author) (China); Huang Daihui Su Riben Zhengfu Minshi Qisushu [Complaint from Huang Daihui to the Japanese Government]; Zhang Shan Den Deng Su Riben Zhengfu Minshi Qisushu [Complaint from Zhang Shan et al. to the Japanese Government] (2012) (on file with author) (China); Dong Zhi Deng Su Riben Zhengfu Ji Riben Sanleng Zonghe Cailiao Zhushi Huishe (Yuan Sanleng Kuangye Zhushi Huishe) Minshi Qisushu [Complaint from Dong Zhi et al. to the Japanese Government & Mitsubishi Materials Co.] (Mar. 24, 2014) (on file with author) (China); Yan Zizhen Deng Su Riben Zhengfu Ji Riben Jiaotan Gongye Zhushi Huishe (Yuan Sanjing Kuangshan Zhushi Huishe) Minshi Qisushu [Complaint from Yan Zizhen et. al. to the Japanese Government & Japanese Coke Industry Joint-Stock Co.] (Mar. 24, 2014) (on file with author) (China); Chongqing Dahongzha Minjian Duiri Suopei Zhuanjia Falu Yijian [Expert Legal Opinion Letter on Compensation Requested by Chinese Victims to Japan Regarding the Chongqing Grand Bombing] (July 21, 2012) (on file with author) (China).

⁸⁰ Court Accepts Chinese WWII Forced Labors Lawsuit, China Radio International (Mar. 19, 2014), at http://english.cri.cn/6909/20l4/03/19/3521s818167.htm.

⁸¹ Id.

⁸² Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People’s Republic of China, China-Japan, Sept. 29, 1972, at http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/china/joint72.html.

⁸³ Id., para. 5.

⁸⁴ Guang Jianqiang , Gongping, Zhengyi, Zunyan—Zhongguo Minjian Zhanzheng Shouhaizhe Duiri Suochang Falu Jichu [Equity, Justice, and Dignity—Legal foundation of Claims Against Japan by Chinese War Victims] 174—75 (2006) (China); Zhang Xingjun , Minjian Duiri Suopei Susong Shang De Bianqian HeZhongguo Zhengfu de Huiying—Jianlun Buganshe Yuanze [War Reparation Lawsuits and Judgments in Japan and the Reactions of the Chinese Government—Some Reflections on the Principle of Nonintervention], 4 Tsinghua L.J. 96 (2007) (China); Xing Aifeng & Li Tianzhi , Zhanzheng Peichang yu Minjian Peichang—Jianlun Rijun Yihua Huaxue Wuqi Susong An Jiqi Qianjing [War Reparation and Civil Compensation—On the Lawsuits for Civil Compensation by Chinese Victims of the Chemical Weapons Abandoned by the Japanese Army], 9 Int’l F. 57, 57 (2007) (China).

⁸⁵ For a review of both cases, see Asada, Masahiko & Ryan, Trevor, Postwar Reparations Between Japan and China and the Waiver of Individual Claims: Japan’s Supreme Court Judgments in the Nishimatsu Construction Case and the Second Chinese “Comfort Women” Case, 19 Italian Y.B. Int’l L. 205 (2009)Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Saikô Saibansho [Sup. Ct.] Apr. 24, 2007, 224 Saikô Saibansho Minji Hanreishū [Mlnshū] 325, at http://www.courts.go.jp/app/files/hanrei_jp/591/034591_hanrei.pdf (Japan).

⁸⁷ Zhongfang Fandui Ri Zuigaofa Renyi Jieshi Zhongri Lianhe Shengming” Xiangguan Tiaokuan [China Opposes Japan’s Supreme Court’s Arbitrary Interpretation of the Relevant Provisions of China-Japan Communiqué], Xinhuanet (Apr. 28, 2007) (China), at http://news.xinhuanet.com/mrdx/2007-04/28/content_6039307.htm.

⁸⁸ See Experts Advise Chinese WWII Laborers to File Class Action, People’s Daily Online, (Jan. 15, 2002), at http://en.people.cn/200201/15/eng20020115_88683.shtml; Aifeng & Tianzhi, supra note 84, at 60.

⁸⁹ Wu Gufeng , Riben Zhengfu Jiang Yi 20.5 Yi Riyuan “Goumai” Diaoyudao [The Government of Japan Will “Purchase”the Diaoyu Islands for 2.05 billion Yen] (Sept. 5, 2012) (China), at http://news.qq.eom/a/20120905/001233.htm.

⁹⁰ State Council Information Office, Diaoyu Dao, an Inherent Territory of China, China Daily (Sept. 25, 2012), at http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-09/25/content_l 5782158.htm.

⁹¹ Defense Ministry Spokesman on China’s Air Defense Identification Zone, Xinhuanet (Dec. 3, 2013), at http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-12/03/c_132938762.htm.

⁹² Guanyu Chuli Shewai Anjian Ruogan Wenti de Guiding [Rules Concerning the Resolution of Foreign-Related Cases] (Promulgated by Ministry of Foreign Affairs et al., June 20, 1995, effective June 20, 1995) (China), at http://www.chinalawedu.com/news/1200/22598/22604/22717/2006/3/ga31631653541313600219936-0.htm.

⁹³ See generally Slaughter, Anne-Marie & Bosco, David, Plaintiff’s Diplomacy, 79 Foreign Aff. 102 (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; John Norton Moore, Foreign Affairs Litigation in United States Courts (2013); Curtis A. Brad ley, Supreme Court Holds That Alien Tort Statute Does Not Apply to Conduct in Foreign Countries, ASIL Insights (Apr. 18, 2013).

⁹⁴ See, e.g., Chiméne I. Keitner, The Reargument Order in Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum and Its Potential Implications for Transnational Human Rights Cases, ASIL Insights (Mar. 21, 2012).

⁹⁵ Guojifa yu Guonei Fa Guanxi Yanjiu [A Study on the Relationship Between International Law and National Law] 476–81 (Wan E’xiang ed., 2011) (China).

⁹⁶ Convention Against Torture, supra note 36.

⁹⁷ International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 16, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3, at https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/Chapter%20IV/IV-3.en.pdf (visited Aug. 12, 2015).

⁹⁸ Committee Against Torture, Summary Record of the 51st Meeting, para. 2, UN Doc. CAT/C/SR.51, (May 4, 1990).

⁹⁹ See, e.g., Li, supra note 6, at 341; Guo, supra note 6, at 165.

¹⁰⁰ Committee Against Torture, Summary Record of the 419th Meeting, para. 9, UN Doc. CAT/C/SR.419, (May 12, 2000).

¹⁰¹ See Committee Against Torture, Concluding Observations of the Committee Against Torture: China, para. 11, UN Doc. CAT/C/CHN/CO/4, (Dec. 12, 2008); Guanxian, supra note 6, at 273-74; Ruijun, supra note 6, at 273.

¹⁰² Ministry of Public Security , Gong’an Bu Guanyu Yange Lüxing Guoji Gongyue Zhongyu Gong’an Gongzuo Youguan de Guidingde Tongzhi [Ministry of Public Security Note on Strictly Implementing Provisions in International Conventions Related to Public Security] (promulgated by the Ministry of Public Security, Mar. 24, 1989, effective Mar. 24, 1989) (China), at http://www.chinalawedu.com/news/1200/22598/22604/22717/2006/3/ga82661829251313600212124-0.htm.

¹⁰³ Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Second Periodic Report Submitted by States Parties Under Articles 16 and 17 of the Covenant: China, UN Doc. E/C.12/CHN/2, at 9 (July 6, 2012).

¹⁰⁴ Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Concluding Observations on the Second Periodic Report of China, para. 9, UN Doc. E/C.12/CHN/CO/2 (June 13, 2014).

¹⁰⁵ See the accompanying text of note 38.

¹⁰⁶ See generally Rosemary Foot, Rights Beyond Borders: The Global Community and the Struggle Over Human Rights in China (2000).

¹⁰⁷ Karim, M.D. Saiful, Prosecution of Maritime Pirates: The National Court is Dead—Long Live the National Court?, 32 Wis. Int’l L. J. 37 (2014)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui Changwu Weiyuanhui Guanyu Dui Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Dijie Huozhe Canjia de Guoji Tiaoyue Suo Guiding de Zuixing Xingshi Xingshi Guanxiaquan de Jueding [Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress Regarding Exercising Criminal Jurisdiction over the Crimes Proscribed in the International Treaties to Which the People’s Republic of China Is a Party or Has Acceded] (promulgated by the Standing Comm. Nat’l People’s Cong., June 23, 1987) (China), at http://www.npc.gov.cn/wxzl/gongbao/2001-02/06/content_5004485.htm. China is a party or has acceded to such conventions as, among others, the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. See Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, Dec. 16, 1970, 860 U.N.T.S. 105, at https://treaties.un.org/doc/db/Terrorism/Conv2-english.pdf; Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, Sept. 23, 1971, 974 U.N.T.S. 177, at https://treaties.un.org/doc/db/Terrorism/Conv3-english.pdf; Convention on Psychotropic Substances, Feb. 21, 1971, 1019 U.N.T.S. 175, at https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/Chapter%20VI/VI-16.en.pdf; Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, Dec. 13, 1964, 520 U.N.T.S. 151, at https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/Chapter%20VI/VI-18.en.pdf

¹⁰⁹ Xing Fa [Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China] (promulgated by the Nat’l People’s Cong., July 1, 1979) 1979 Standing Comm. Nat’l People’s Cong. Gaz. 83, Art. 9 (amended 1997).

¹¹⁰ On several occasions, the SPC has urged that local judges increase their knowledge of international law. See, e.g., Guanyu Shenli He Zhixing Shewai Min Shangshi Anjian Yingdang Zhuyi de Ji Ge Wenti de Tongzhi [Notice of the Supreme People’s Court on Several Issues Concerning the Trial and Enforcement of Foreign-Related Civil and Commercial Cases] (Promulgated by the Sup. People’s Ct., Apr. 17, 2000, effective on Apr. 17, 2000) (China), at http://www.tpan.cn/html/5196.htm.

¹¹¹ See Tong Weihua, Haishang Kongbu Zhuyi Fanzui Ji Haidao Fanzui de Xingshi Guizhi [Terrorist Crimes at Sea and Criminal Regulation on the Crime of Piracy] 8–9 (2013) (China).

¹¹² Id.

¹¹³ Id.

¹¹⁴ Id.

¹¹⁵ Atan Naim, Deng Qiangjiean [Atan Naim et al., Robbery] [2003] (Shantou Municipal Interm. People’s Ct. Jan. 15, 2003) (China), at http://www.pkulaw.cn/Case/payz_117675567.html?match=Exact.

¹¹⁶ Id.

¹¹⁷ Id.

¹¹⁸ Id.

¹¹⁹ Huang Huikang , Junjian Huhang Daji Suomali Haidao: Falu Yiju He Sifa Chengxu Anpai [Fighting Somali Pirates by Naval Escort: Legal Basis and Judicial Procedure], 2011 Ann. China Maritime L.1, 5 (China).

¹²⁰ See Tang, supra note 6; Huang, supra note 6; Yongping & Weidi, supra note 6.

¹²¹ Yongping & Weidi, supra note 6 at 101—02.

¹²² See Zuigao Renmin Fayuan Guanyu Renmin Fayuan Chuli yu Shewai Zhongcai ji Waiguo Zhongcai Shixiang Youguan Wenti de Tongzhi [Supreme People’s Court Notice Concerning Issues Regarding Foreign-Related Arbitration and Foreign Arbitration by People’s Courts] (Promulgated by the Sup. People’s Ct., Aug. 28, 1995, effective Aug. 28, 1995) (China), at http://www.chinalawedu.eom/news/1300/12/21727/2006/3/zl0419405553123600210650-0.htm.

¹²³ Yang Honglei , Renmin Fayuan Shewai Zhongcai Sifa Shencha Qingkuang de Diaoyan Baogao [Report on the Judicial Review of International Arbitration in Chinese Courts] 9 Wuhan U. Int’l L. Rev. 304, 311 (2009) (China).

¹²⁴ Beijing Tianyu Tongsheng Xinxi Jishu Youxian Gongsi Su Shenyang Yanxitang Canyin Fuwu Youxian Gongsi [Beijing Tianyu Tongsheng Information Technology Co. Ltd. v. Shenyang Yanxitang Food & Beverage Service Co. Ltd.] (Shenyang City Interm. People’s Ct. Nov. 16, 2011) (China), at http://law1.chinalawinfo.com/case/display.asp?Gid= 118262020.

¹²⁵ Id.

¹²⁶ Id.