1 Cf. the article by Wrede, R. A., “Finland och dess grannar” in Finsk Tidskrift, 1925, p. 259 Google Scholar ff. See also Pipping, Hugo E., “ Ämbetsverk, ämbeten och titlar i Sverige och Finland,” Nordisk Tidskrift, 1920 Google Scholar.

2 The best work on the Aaland Islands is J. O. Söderhjelm, Démilitarisation et neutralisation dee Iles d’Aland en 1856 et 1981, Helsingfors, 1928. See also Fernand De, Visscher, “La question des Iles d’Aland,” Revue de Droit International, 1921, pp. 35 Google Scholar ff, 243 ff, and 568 ff; the writer’s Some Aspects of the Recent Foreign Policy of Sweden, Univ. of California Press, 1929; this Journal, Vol. 15 (1921), pp. 268–272, and Vol. 17 (1923), pp. 63–76. For the régime since the neutralization, see Artur Toilet and John Uggla, Lagstiftningen angående självstyrelse för Åland, jåmte tillhörande författnigar, Helsingfors, 1930, and L’Autonomie de la Province D’Aland et son Application Pratique, Publications de Miniatère des Affaires Etrangères de Finlande, Helsinki, 1930.

3 The Treaty of Dorpat, October 14,1920, League of Nations Treaty Series, III, pp. 5–80, and Finlands författningsmmling, 1921, Nos. 20–21. The latter is the Finnish collection of laws and treaties, which will hereinafter be cited as F. F. S., 1920, 1921, etc., according to the year. It is issued in Finnish and Swedish, the two official languages of Finland, the latter being used here. In Finnish the collection is known as suomen asetuskokoelma. The treaty in question, for which the credit must be given to Rudolf Holsti, Finland’s Foreign Minister at the time, was in many respects favorable to the Finns, but on the other hand it is felt by many that more favorable terms might have been obtained had Finland been in a stronger position at the time. An earlier treaty, concluded before the Soviet Government was so deeply entrenched at home, would have been better, especially as Finland was at this time enmeshed in the struggle over the Aaland Islands, which detracted from her ability to negotiate. Cf. Erich, R. W., “Neutralitetspolitik och förbundsmöjligheter,” Finsk Tidskrift, 1923, p. 131 Google Scholar, and statement of Dr. Erich to the writer in an interview in Stockholm, Nov. 19, 1930. For a favorable view of Holsti’s actions here, see Malbone W. Graham, New Governments of Eastern Europe, New York, 1927. Prof. Graham’s outline of Finnish external relations is good. See pages 161–203, 535–555.

For a discussion of Russian foreign relations as related to the problems mentioned herein, see Adolf, Törngren, “Die Entwicklung der finnischrussische Beziehungen sett dem Dorpater Frieden,” Europäische Gespräche, July, 1930, p. 350 Google Scholar ff., and Hans von, Rimscha, “Die Politik der Soiojetunion gegenüber den Baltischen Staaten,” ibidem, April, 1930, p. 206 Google Scholar ff. See also Graham, , “The Soviet Security System,” International Conciliation, No. 252 Google Scholar.

4 Erich, loc. cit. The destruction of these fortifications was in many respects probably unnecessary, and reduced Finland’s defensive position, although the convention of 1921 to some extent compensated for this.

5 Although in this discussion Poland is sometimes included in the Randstaaten, strictly speaking that group consists of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. For well-known reasons, the latter has not coöperated in the movements here described.

6 Cf. Wrede, op. cit., p. 265, and Törngren, op. cit.

7 Wrede, p. 262 ff., and Erich, op. cit.

8 See Svenaka Dagbladet, Oct. 30, 1923, for full report of the address.

8 See Svenska Dagbladet and Dagens Nyheter, Nov. 12, 1923. See also Karl, Hildebrand, Gustav V, Sveriges Historia till vdra dagar, XIV, p. 528 Google Scholar.

10 See Hufvudstadsbladet, Uusi Suomi, Åbo Underrättelser, and Svenska Pressen, Oct. 30-Nov. 5,1923.

11 See his article “L’Oeuvre commune des états scandinaves relatif à la S. D. N.,” in Les Origines et l’oeuvre de la S.D.N., II, Copenhagen, 1924, and the work of Ernst Trygger in the same publication, “l’Entrée de la Suede dans la S. D. N.” See also the monograph of the writer already cited, pp. 265–270, 304–309.

12 On these treaties, as well as those of 1926 discussed below, consult Löfgren, J. E., De Nordiska förliknings och skiljedomsavtalen i deras ställning till det internationella rättsystemet, Stockholm, 1927 Google Scholar; Löfgren’s summary of the same in Current History, Oct., 1927; Per, Wijkman, “Sveriges avtal om fredlig lösning av mellanfolkliga tvister,” Svensk juristtidning, 1926, p. 321 Google Scholar ff; Efremoff, J., “Les traités de conciliation de 1984,” Revue de Droit International, 1925, p. 876 Google Scholar ff.; the writer’s monograph, pp. 322-335. For the treaties of Finland, see the article by Prof.Björksten, S. R., of the University of Helsingfors, “Firlands fördrag om fredligt biläggande av mellanfolkliga tvister,” in Tidskrift utgiven av Juridiska Föreningen i Finland, No. 3, 1930 Google Scholar. Prof. Björksten has been kind enough to place this at the disposal of the writer, and much of what follows owes its inspiration to him.

13 F. F. S., 1924, Nos. 238 and 259; 1925, No. 129.

14 Charles de, Visscher, “La procédure de conciliation devant la S. D. N.,” Revue de Droit International, 1923, p. 21 Google Scholar ff.

15 League of Nations Official Journal, Records of the Third Assembly, Meetings of the Committees, I, Annex 14, pp. 140–144.

16 See Article 1 of the Scandinavian agreements.

17 Löfgren, op. cit., pp. 40–42.

18 F. F. 8., 1926, No. 187.

19 Ibidem, No. 222.

20 Ibidem, 1927, No. 84.

21 See Erich’s, R. W. discussions of the same, “Le protocole de Genève,” Rev. de Droit Int., 1924, p. 509 Google Scholar ff., and “ Genèveprotokollet,” Finsk Tidskrift, 1925, p. 225 ff.

22 See Karl, Strupp, Das Werk von Locarno, Berlin and Leipzig, 1926 Google Scholar, and Nicholas, Politis, “Les accords de Locarno,” Rev. de Droit Int., 1925, p. 713 Google Scholar ff.

23 Cf. Löfgren, op. cit., pp. 62-64.

24 Björksten, op. cit., pp. 156, 160–161.

25 See Articles 1 and 2 of the conventions.

26 See Articles 1 and 2 of the convention.

27 As to terminology, see Lammasch, , “Die Lehre von der Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit,” in Handbüch des Völkerrechts, V: 2, 1914 Google Scholar; Giraud, , “Valeurs et rapports des nations de droit et de politique dans I’ordre international,” Rev. gen. de droit int. public, 1922, p. 500 Google Scholar ff.

28 See Löfgren, op. cit, p. 70, for first point of view, and Björksten, op. cit., p. 161, for the second.

29 Cf. Graham, , New Govts, of East. Europe, p. 243 Google Scholar, and note p. 544.

30 Proclaimed in Finland Oct. 27, 1925. F. F. S., 1925, No. 324. On this pact see the article by Efremoff, J., “Le premier traité collectif européen de conciliation,” Rev. Gen. de Droit Int. Public, 1926, p. 357 Google Scholar ff. On Poland’s treaties, see Makowski, , “La conciliation, l’arbitrage et le règlement judiciaire d’après les traités récents de la Pologne,” in ibidem, 1927, p. 272 Google Scholar ff. For Polish foreign relations in general, see Casimir Smogorzewski, “La Politique Etrangère de la Pologne (à propos du Recueil de Discours et Declarations de M. Auguste Zaleski),” La Pologne, Paris, June, 1930, p. 481 ff.

31 Cf. Björksten, pp. 156–157 and passim.

32 F. F. S., 1926, No. 49.

33 Ibidem, 1929, No. 202.

34 Cf. the arbitration and conciliation convention between Sweden and Germany, Sveriges Överenskommelser med Främmande Makter, 1925, No. 28, and Löfgren’s commentary on the same, op. cit., pp. 58–59.

35 Cf. Björksten, pp. 151, 158; Makowski, op. cit., pp. 280 ff.; and Lammasch as cited above.

36 F. F. S., 1927, No. 323.

37 See also the treaty between Sweden, and Belgium, , Sveriges Överenskommelser med Främmande Makter, 1927, No. 16 Google Scholar, and the writer’s summary of the same, op. cit., pp. 331–332, which cites the Swedish Minister to the United States, W. Boström, in American-Scandinavian Review, XV, p. 283 ff.

38 F. F. S., 1928, No. 212.

39 Cf. Björksten, p. 163. See also the article by Dietrich Schindler, “Les traités de conciliation et d’arbitrage conclus par la Suisse,” Rev. de Droit Int., 1925, p. 816 ff.

40 F. F. S., 1929, No. 175. See also Giulio, Diena, “Le traité de conciliation et de règlement judiciaire entre l’Italie et la Suisse,” Rev. de Droit Int., 1925, p. 1 Google Scholar ff.

41 F. F. S., 1928, No. 302.

42 F. F. S., 1929, Nos. 14 and 15.

43 Björksten, op. cit., pp. 165–166; and Lammasch, op. cit., p. 103 ff.

44 F.F.S., 1929, No.113.

45 F. F. S., 1929, No. 297.

46 For the following see the text of the treaties and the references already cited, especially Björksten.

47 Articles 53, 54, and 58.

48 Cf. Article 82 of the Hague Convention of 1907.

49 Björksten, 172–173.

50 But consider also Article 39 of the General Act of Geneva.

51 See F. R. and Dareste, P., Les Constitutions Modemes (quatrième édit. Delpech et Laferrière), Paris, 1928, I, pp. 491–515 Google Scholar, for Finnish Constitution. See also Erich, R. W., “Die Verfassung Finlands. Entwicklung des öffentl. Rechts in Finland,” Jahrbüch des öffentl. Recht, XI, pp. 103–121 Google Scholar; Wrede, R. A., Grunddragen av Finlands rätts-och samhälLsordning, Helsingfors, 1921 Google Scholar; Constitution de la Finlande, Helsinki, 1928, and Loi Organique de la Chambre des Représentants de Finlande, Helsinki, 1930 (Imprimerie du Gouvernement).

52 See the first page of each of the agreements in F. F. S.

53 F. F. S., 1925, No. 324; Björksten, p. 175.

54 Since December 16, 1920.

55 Herman, Gummerus, “ Nationernas Förbund i teorien och praktiken,” Finsk Tidskrift, 1927 II, p. 137 Google Scholar ff.

56 See the Livre Vert, Actes et Documents concernant la Question Carélienne (Documents publiés par la Délégation Carélienne), Helsinki, 1922, and the three White Books, La Question de la Carélie Orientale (Documents publiés par le ministère des affaires étrangères), Helsinki, 1922, 1923, 1924, as well as the article by Erich, R. W., “La Question de la Carélie Orientale,” Rev. de Droit Int., 1922, p. 1 Google Scholar ff.; 1923, p. 227 ff.

57 On April 6, 1927, she extended her signature of the latter for ten years. See F. F. S., 1927, No. 85.

58 F. F. S., 1930, No. 89. On this see Erich, R. W., “Les projets de convention elaborés par le comité d’arhitrage et de sécurité,” Rev. de Droit Int., 1928, p. 332 Google Scholar ff., and Le, Baron Deschamps, “Le droit international nouveau,” ibidem, 1929, p. 159 Google Scholar ff.

59 F. F. S., 1929, No. 272. See Graham, , Soviet Security Treaties, p. 37 Google Scholar, and Gustaf, Olsson, “Litvinovprotokollet och Kelloggpakten,” Nya Dagligt AUehanda, Feb. 21, 1929 Google Scholar.

60 See Procopé’s speech in the 1930 League Assembly, Sept. 16, and Finland’s response to the French memorandum in Documents relatifs à l’organisation d’un régime d’union fédérale Européenne, pp. 33-36. See also Erich, R. W., “Pan-Amerika och Pan-Europa,” Svensk Tidskrift, 1930, p. 373 Google Scholar ff.

61 As to the origin of the idea of the draft convention, it has been stated that a Swede, Gustaf Roos, first presented such a plan to the Swedish Government, which failed to be interested, and that he then prevailed upon the Finns to accept it, after which they made it their own. See Dagens Nyheter, Sept. 25, 1930, and an article by Roos, “Försäkring mot krig,” Finsk Tidskrift, 1925. In an interview with the writer, however, Dr. R. W. Erich, who was the head of the Finnish committee out of which the proposal came, stated that the Finnish plan had been well under way before Mr. Roos was invited to Finland to give an address outlining his ideas, and although the Finns were happy to receive suggestions from the latter, the final proposal was quite independent of the Swedish outline.

62 See the Finnish White Book, La Question de la Sécurité, Helsinki, 1927, pp. 5–30.

63 Ibidem, p. 44, and passim. See also Documents de la Commission préparatoire de la Conférence du Désarmament, Série II, p. 126, and the discussion here as well as in Série III. For the history of the plan through its various stages, consult League of Nations documents A. 10. 1929. II, A. 15. 1930. VII, AIII. 19. 1930, and AIII. 24. 1930.

64 League of Nations Official Journal, Special Supplement 84, p. 192.

65 There remains the problem of Soviet Russia, which it has not seemed best to discuss here. Russia has made repeated efforts to include Finland in her security system, but has met with little success. The most striking example of this was in 1929 when, at the time of the discussion of the Kellogg Pact in this part of Europe, the so-called Litvinov Protocol was advanced. Finland, however, was not one of the states adhering to the latter, Feb. 9, 1929. For Fenno-Russian relations in general see the articles cited above, especially those of Torngren, Von Rimscha, and Olsson. It can hardly be said that the Finland of today fears Russia. Except for a small blatant element, she is anxious to remain on good terms with that Power.

The Lapua anti-communist movement of 1930 and the more recent differences of opinion as to alleged Soviet maltreatment of Finnish Ingrian minorities have caused a tension between the two countries. The Lapua agitation was not directed agamst Russia, but was rather a national uprising against communism and must be viewed against the background of an essentially agrarian and altogether bourgeois country. That it has subsided since its chief aim was accomplished seems to support this view. For the constitutional results of the same see Björksten, S. R., “Ar 1930 från statsrättslig synpunkt,” Defensor Legis, Jan.–March, 1931, pp. 10 Google Scholar ff. The Ingrian minority question remains a delicate subject at the present time. See the “Opinion” on this given by Prof. Björksten to the Foreign Office, April 24, 1931, and the “Report on the persecutions of the Ingrian Finns in the R. S. F. S. R.,” circulated by the Ingrian Committee in Finland, April, 1931.