Interest in establishing nationally uniform certification, labeling, and management standards for organic products grew out of concern that the existence of multiple standards led to consumer and supply chain confusion about, and lack of confidence in, these products. The National Organic Program Final Rule, issued in December 2000, is the result of this interest. We analyze the certification system that was in place prior to the new national rule to evaluate the extent of differences between certification standards and how the national rule is likely to impact the market for organic products. Our analysis suggests that most differences among US certification standards were minor. Also, the most important impacts of the national standard may be in facilitating trade in ingredients and products certified by different certifiers, increasing buyer confidence, and facilitating exports. However, the national rule may decrease the ability of organic certifiers and consumers to place differing emphasis on the multiple goals of organic production and may decrease the flexibility of organic standards to respond to changing market conditions, including new technologies.

Environmental risks and costs associated with insecticide applications in Maine potato farming have been characterized and estimated using an Aroostook producer survey. The results of this study allow for comparison of pest management strategies based on producer concern for various aspects of the environment, including water quality, human health and animal safety. ‘Willingness to pay’ survey methodology was used to acquire an environmental cost range for insecticide use. Maine potato producers are willing to pay between $1.00 acre−1 (one acre = 0.4047ha) and $26.80acre−1 to avoid or reduce environmental risk associated with a single insecticide application. The Aroostook producer survey indicates that producers with small farms are generally willing to pay more to avoid or reduce environmental risk than producers with large farms. Mean Maine potato farm size has more than tripled over the past 40 years; therefore, concern for environmental quality on Maine potato farms could be decreasing.

The goal of this issue of the AJAA on carbon (C) sequestration in agriculture and forestry is to demystify the potential for the agroforestry sectors in Annex 1 countries of the Kyoto Protocol (exemplified by the US and Canada in this issue) and non-Annex 1 countries (exemplified by Indonesia) to be a source of inexpensive C sinks to offset C emissions from other sectors, while at the same time benefiting small farmers and conservation.

Compared with conventional farms, organic farms are expected to be more diverse, less specialized and less intensive, and as a group contribute to a more uniform regional distribution of farm types. Data on farm size, crop distribution and livestock intensity prior to conversion and planned after conversion on 448 Danish farms, which began conversion to organic farming in 1997, are presented by addressing two questions: (1) what features characterize Danish farms that convert from conventional to organic farming; and (2) do farm types, stocking rates and crop distribution change with conversion? In 1997, dairy farms dominated among the converting farms in hectarage, and a large majority (80–97%) of the farmers of all farm types planned to continue with the same type of production system after conversion. Thus, the regional characterization pattern in organic farm types will be similar to that of conventional farms. Although the total number of livestock units on the converting farms is planned to increase by 6% following conversion to organic farming, they are well below average in stocking rates compared with all Danish farms both before and after conversion. Farmers also plan changes in crop distribution: a 20% decrease in the hectarage for cereal production; a doubling of the hectarage for grassland in rotation; a decrease in hectarage for set-aside, row crops and oilseed rape; and roughage and seeds unchanged. Planned changes in crop distribution differ between farm types. The need to include aspects of diversity and production intensity, on both the farm and the larger scale, in the evaluation of the future direction in organic farming is discussed.

Agricultural soil quality (SQ) research has focused on the influence of individual soil properties, particularly those related to soil organic matter (SOM), on soil processes such as water movement and retention, and nutrient cycling. However, few studies have assessed the influence of these SOM-related properties on crop productivity, particularly under different management systems. Furthermore, agricultural SQ research in tropical regions is limited. The objectives of this study were, for a tropical site, to determine (1) the relationship between selected soil characteristics and resulting soil functional properties such as aggregate stability and porosity, and (2) the relationship between SQ indicators and productivity of corn under three different tillage systems. Twelve plots were randomly demarcated in three adjacent fields under different tillage systems. Profiles were described by augering and the surface soil (0–7.5 cm) was sampled just prior to crop harvest and analyzed for texture, standard soil tests (pH, available P, K, Mg and Ca) and SQ parameters including total N, total and active fraction C, porosity and aggregate stability. Corn dry grain m−2, above-ground crop dry matter m−2, and dry grain per plant was measured in each plot. Soil C parameters were highly predictive of macroaggregate stability and soil porosity across different tillage systems. Macroaggregate stability and soil C (particularly active C oxidizable by 0.025m KMnO4) were highly correlated with crop productivity across tillage systems. These findings suggest that soil C in the surface layer, especially the active C fraction, markedly affected the productivity of this tropical soil through its influence on soil structure.

The number of retail farmers' markets in the USA increased dramatically in the twentieth century, with a burst of growth experienced after the passage of Public Law 94–463 (PL 94–463), the Farmer-to-Consumer Direct Marketing Act of 1976. This article inventories the literature since the Second World War on retail farmers' markets and direct marketing in North America. The inventory includes some lesser known studies from 1970 to 1985. The reports are grouped into four categories by topical area: consumers and vendors, economic impact, social impact and farmers' markets as research sites. Overall, the literature on farmers' markets is found to be scant, leaving ample room for new and exciting explorations of this venerable institution.

Soil-testing is an effective guide for achieving and maintaining an optimum supply of available plant nutrients, but there is little information on the multi-year soil-test changes for farms using long-term crop rotations, ridge-tillage and nutrients supplied by a mixture of organic amendments. Our objectives were to characterize yearly changes in surface soil-test parameters, including the stratification of P and K; compare soil-test methods (Mehlich III versus Bray P1 and 1 M NH4OAc exchangeable K); and evaluate soil-test interpretation strategies [sufficiency level versus basic cation saturation ratio (BCSR)] within a fanner-managed field. The study was conducted on the Clarion–Nicollet–Webster Soil Association near Boone, 1A, in a field that had not been moldboard plowed for 29 years. Soil samples were collected from the 0–5, 5–10, 10–15, and 15–20 cm depth increments before plowing and every autumn thereafter throughout the 5-year rotation. Samples were analyzed for pH, Bray extractable P, exchangeable K, total C and N, NH4− and NO3−N concentrations, and Mehlich III extractable P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Mn and Zn. Stratification of P and K was evident within 2 years after moldboard plowing. This was not considered a production problem, because, based on sufficiency-level soil-test interpretations, the animal manure/municipal sludge applications had increased soil P and K concentrations to levels where no crop response to additional fertilizer would be expected. Using Mehlich III extradant with simultaneous inductively coupled plasma–atomic emission spectrometer (ICP–AES) analysis resulted in soil-test interpretations that were the same as with Bray P1 and 1 M ammonium acetate (NH4OAc) extracting solutions. The Mehlich III solution did extract more Ca than 1 M NH4OAc, causing K saturation percentages to be very low when the data were interpreted using a BCSR approach. We conclude that stratification is not a production issue at this site; that either soil-test methodology would be acceptable for P and K extraction; and that additional studies evaluating the BCSR soil-test interpretation philosophy are warranted.

This paper demonstrates the need to integrate biophysical and economic data to assess the competitiveness of US agriculture to provide soil carbon (C) and participate in a market for C credits. The paper discusses alternative methods of calculating the costs of soil C sequestration and compares the cost of sequestering soil C in Iowa and Montana. Results indicate that the opportunity cost per Mg of sequestered C varies in response to regional resource endowments and net returns. Economic models show that Montana could sequester a relatively small amount of soil C annually at a lower opportunity cost per Mg than Iowa, but Iowa can sequester larger quantities more efficiently. These results are compared with estimates of the cost of C sequestration from other domestic and international studies, and suggest that US agriculture could be competitive in domestic or international markets for C reduction credits.

Interest in organic dairying is increasing at a rapid pace in California, and the demand for organic milk and dairy products is growing even faster. The intent of this study was to determine the cost of organic milk production, and in particular, to determine the differences in cost of production of organic and conventional milk. Primarily we are interested in whether the differences are due to government-mandated requirements or whether they are the result of optional procedures or personal preferences. Previous studies have indicated that under organic production, the higher net returns observed on organic farming enterprises are due mainly to the lower cost of production. This conclusion is not sustained here. Our results show that the total cost of production on a per cow and a per hundredweight basis is 10–20% higher for organic producers than for conventional producers. While not strongly statistically significant, the differences appear to be due to higher feed costs, higher average labor costs, significantly higher herd replacement costs, and significant transition costs

Land-based systems of low stocking rate are usually associated with low environmental concerns. However, we hypothesized that traditional unrestructured grazing systems may represent more environmental costs than benefits. Community-based research work was conducted in the 1990s in the cereal-sheep system of Castile–La Mancha, with the objective of assessing the typology of the system, including the grazing structures and social groups involved in grazing management. Results showed that traditional management represented a heterogeneous spatio-temporal distribution of grazing at the regional level, with high variability at the local level. Occasional overgrazing may occur, but a trend towards fewer grazing-days with correspondingly more indoor feeding and widespread underuse of grazing resources was more apparent. Proposals to improve the grazing system reached a high degree of consensus among farmers, but the two social groups (cultivators and landless pastoralists) showed divergent views in some important management issues. The imbalance in group numbers indicated that collective action is difficult to achieve. Implementation of improved grazing practices would require a policy intervention based on the disentangled constraints and consensus among interested farmers.

Small farmers urgently need alternative marketing strategies if they are to achieve the goals of a more sustainable agriculture. This study was a survey of nine Pennsylvania wholesale produce auctions, all established between 1984 and 1998. The main goals of the auctions were to serve local communities, provide high-quality produce to local consumers and make profits. The results showed that the auctions typically employ an average of 7–10 people per growing season. The five most common commodities sold were cantaloupe, watermelon, tomato, pumpkin and sweet corn. Asparagus and onions were the least sold during a regular growing season. In terms of market share, roadside market operators purchased the largest proportion of produce (40%), followed by farmers (27%), chain food stores (16%), independent grocery stores (11%) and restaurants (6%), making up an average annual gross sale of $3.5 million per auction. The study revealed that the nine Pennsylvania produce auctions were successful in meeting their goals. The reasons for success included private ownership, excellent quality and freshness of produce, good location, local produce recognition, clientele availability and customer-oriented business. The auction managers identified some weaknesses, including inconsistent and poor grading, limited space in the auction facility, produce unavailability and limited volume, lack of cooling facility, price fluctuation and slow service. The study indicated that local wholesale produce auctions are a useful marketing alternative for small farmers in Pennsylvania, by providing marketing outlets and convenient shopping centers for sellers and buyers; by securing a source of fresh and locally grown produce not found in traditional wholesale terminal markets; and by allowing exchange and networking among farmers and buyers. Consequently, the wholesale produce auction can be a useful model for an alternative marketing strategy and can provide considerable benefits to small farm and rural communities.

Reforestation of frequently flooded, marginally productive agricultural lands may provide environmental benefits. However, for reforestation to occur private landowners must earn enough revenues from forestlands to offset both the costs of reforesting as well as any forgone agricultural income. Among the possible revenue sources is the sale of carbon sequestration credits earned from reforestation. We simulate the financial feasibility of reforestation and the contribution of carbon sequestration credit sales to the net income possible from reforestation in a case study area of frequently flooded soybean fields in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (the Delta). Under current market conditions, reforestation appears to be financially feasible on only the most marginally productive agricultural lands. Markets for carbon credits may contribute to positive financial returns of reforestation, but other policies and market opportunities will be necessary for a positive return to be realized.

Outdoor pig production, usually gestation, farrowing and lactation, is an alternative swine production system that is increasing in popularity. The outdoor farrowing hut is the principal modifier of the environment for the sow and litter, as well as the primary structure to reduce prewean mortality. Prewean mortality of piglets is a major problem for both indoor and outdoor swine herds. Five types of floorless individual farrowing huts were evaluated over 4 years, during the month of September in Iowa. A total of 206 litters by primiparous crossbred sows were farrowed. Piglet deaths for the first 14 days after farrowing were recorded. Hut type had an effect on piglet prewean mortality (P < 0.10). The arc-style hut and the blunt-top A hut had only about one-third as many litters with piglet mortalities and a lower prewean mortality percentage (3.8 versus 8.5%) than an inverted U hut. This difference would be approximately a half pig/litter increase in litter size at weaning. The superior huts each had a distinct and ample sow area and safe pig areas. The safe pig areas were made by a sloping or curved roofline that came to the ground (the arc-style hut) or with guard rails (the blunt-top A hut). Overall prewean mortality for the study was low (6.0%). Crushing of piglets accounted for 93% of the prewean mortality. The study shows that outdoor farrowing systems can achieve competitiveness with low piglet mortality particularly if superior huts are used. Selection of the outdoor farrowing hut is a critical decision in planning outdoor swine farrowing systems.

This work focused on the evaluation of undergraduate curricula in agriculture for a selected group of institutions from Louisiana and Texas in the US, and France and Italy. The primary research objective was pursued through the measurement of knowledge acquisition in sustainable agriculture principles of undergraduate students as they were approaching the completion of their curriculum. Quantitative data were collected through the administration of a test to eight samples (n = 20) of senior students from each university participating in the study. An analysis of frequencies for every test question indicated the strengths but also the weaknesses that still exist in the agricultural curricula when students' academic achievement was measured. Every institution acknowledged the emerging sustainable agriculture paradigm in brochures, catalogs and web sites. There is a need for ameliorating agricultural curricula as the long-term productivity of farms is threatened by market policies uncontrollable by single producers and by the manipulation of resources that frequently accelerate environmental degradation. Therefore, we show opportunities for the strengthening of study programs to incorporate sustainable agriculture principles in undergraduate curricula.

The logic of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and other such ‘carbon (C) offsets’ rests on the notion that the opportunity cost of reducing C emissions is lower in developing countries, creating opportunities for mutually beneficial C trading. While the CDM may offer significant gross financial benefits, there has been little analysis of the opportunity costs of foregone resource exploitation and development opportunities. In addition to assessing the potential for net benefits, this paper also considers the practical implications for design and implementation of C offsets for forest conservation and agroforestation in Indonesia. Virtually nothing is known about these administrative factors, and their associated costs, which can also play a decisive role in feasibility of C offset schemes. Data are from field studies in the lowlands of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, where forests and derived land uses are broadly representative of the lowland humid tropical rainforest systems of insular South-East Asia. These data are the basis for assessing the trade-offs between natural forest protection for C sequestration and conversion to other land uses to meet national development objectives that directly affect people's livelihoods. Carbon stocks are analyzed in terms of ‘time-averaged’ C, an indicator developed for this project. Opportunity costs of land-use alternatives are estimated using standard techniques for economic assessment of investment projects in developing countries. The study finds that imputed timber values are a significant share of the opportunity costs of forest conservation, even for conservative estimates of timber prices. The question of compensating for these foregone values raises complex questions regarding the political economy of Indonesia, since property rights over these resources are highly contentious. These controversies over property rights are also examined within the context of recurrent smoke pollution from land fires in Indonesia, that (among other problems) contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. This smoke is symptomatic of deeper political and institutional problems that raise questions about the permanence of C storage through land-use practices in Indonesia. In comparison to forest conservation, C offsets through agroforestation seem more feasible in Indonesia because property rights over timber from planted trees would be easier to establish and enforce than property rights over timber from natural forests. Although results in this paper look promising, there is still much to be learned about implementation costs, even for the ‘easier’ case of agroforestation.

Most of Austria's organic farms are located in mountainous areas and produce mainly milk and beef, whereas a low percentage of cash-crop farms are organic. As a result, the demand for organically grown crops cannot be fully met by domestic production. This paper investigates the barriers to adoption of organic agriculture by cash-crop farmers in Austria. In a written survey, 383 conventional farmers provided information on their perception of organic farming and rated the importance of potential barriers to adoption. Technical challenges in cropping and additional labor requirements were rated as the most important barriers, followed by fear of decreased income and marketing problems. Structural and social issues, such as farm size and lack of support from family members, were less important.

This study assesses consumer perceptions of sustainably produced foods and evaluates whether a supermarket point-of-purchase intervention could increase shoppers' awareness of a campaign designed to promote purchases of sustainably produced foods. The in-store intervention involved the promotion of sustainably produced apples labeled with the Midwest Food Alliance's (MWFA) seal of approval. Minnesota consumers were surveyed at two eastern metropolitan area intervention stores and one eastern metropolitan area comparison store. The in-store campaign lasted 8 weeks and involved individually labeled apples, point-of-purchase materials, and weekly food demonstrations. Prior to campaign initiation, baseline surveys were administered to consumers in two test stores and one comparison store. Follow-up surveys were mailed to these same consumers upon conclusion of the campaign intervention. Independent samples t-tests comparing change from baseline to post intervention indicated that a statistically higher percentage of consumers in the test-market group had heard of the Midwest Food Alliance campaign. Furthermore, a statistically higher percentage of the test-market shoppers reported seeing signs and labels promoting the MWFA, indicating that the promotion had some impact. Baseline data gathered from all consumers indicated that foods produced with sustainable practices were important to consumers; however, food characteristics of freshness, taste, safety and healthfulness were most important. The majority of consumers reported that they would be willing to pay 10–30% more for selected sustainably produced foods. Research results indicated that an 8–week in-store intervention was effective at increasing consumer awareness of the MWFA. However, a more powerful intervention (including a longer promotion period with more labeled foods) may be needed to induce shoppers to increase their purchases of sustainably produced foods promoted by the MWFA.

Fiber nettle (Urtica dioica L.) has potential as a fiber crop in the natural textiles industry, an industry requiring production by organic methods. No recent data on yield potentials and quality of this crop using these methods are available to farmers. Five fiber nettle clones were cultivated between 1997 and 1999 in a randomized block design with four replications per clone on an organic farm in Lower Austria. The harvests from the second and third cultivation year were used for further analysis. The dry matter yield (stalks) of the five nettle clones in the second cultivation year (1998) ranged from 2.3 to 4.7 Mg ha−1. The dry matter yield of the third cultivation year (5.6 to 9.7 Mg ha−1) was more than double that of the second year. The large increase in the yield of the third year was a result of an increase in the height (20 to 40 cm higher) and a doubling of the number of stalks per plot compared with those from the second cultivation year. Undersowing with clover had a positive effect on fiber nettle growth. The fiber content after chemical processing ranged between 8 and 16% of the dry matter in both the second and third cultivation years. The fiber yields ranged from 335 to 411 kg ha−1 in the second year and from 743 to 1016 kg ha−1 in the third year. Clones with a high dry matter yield had a low fiber content and vice versa. There was no significant difference in the fiber quality (fiber strength, elongation, fiber fineness, length of fiber) of the five nettle clones. Due to the different consistency in the upper and lower part of the stalk and to fiber processing methods, the fiber material is generally very heterogeneous. This work shows that the cultivation of fiber nettle by organic methods in Austria is possible and that it produced well in the third year. Organically grown fibers of nettle are suitable for textile use; however, further development of an economic and functional high-yielding method for fiber processing, and efficient marketing are essential for the success of nettle fiber in the textile market.