1 Sommersett v. Stewart, 98 Eng. Rep. 499, sub nom. Sommersett's Case, 20 State Trials 2 (K.B. 1771–72). See Howard, Lord Mansfield ch. 13 (1979); Fifoot, Lord Mansfield 41–42 (1936). For a different view, see Shyllon, Black Slaves in Britain (1974).Google Scholar

2 Chs. 3 and 4 describe these programs.Google Scholar

3 The constitutional prohibition against governmental discrimination on grounds of “religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth” is qualified by permission for “special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.” India Const., art. 15 (4).Google Scholar

4 Collins & LaPierre, Freedom at Midnight 211–12, 245–48 (1975).Google Scholar

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6 Constitution Act, 1982, c. 11 (U.K.). See Days, , Civil Rights in Canada: An American Perspective, 32 Am. J. Comp. L. 307 (1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7 See Hill, Race and Ethnicity in Organized Labor, 12 J. Intergroup Rel. 5 (1984).Google Scholar

8 Compare Galanter's listing of the disabilities of untouchables (at 15) with President's Committee on Civil Rights, To Secure These Rights (1947), describing the economic and social conditions of “Negroes” in the United States circa World War II.Google Scholar

9 See Workers, Asbestos, Local 53 v. Vogler, 407 F.2d 1047 (5th Cir. 1969).Google Scholar

10 V. S. Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization 169 (Vintage ed. 1978).Google Scholar

11 Blumrosen, , Anti-Discrimination Laws in Action in New Jersey: A Law-Sociology Study, 19 Rutgers L. Rev. 189, 191–97 (1965).Google Scholar

12 Id., The Law Transmission System and the Southern Jurisprudence of Employment Discrimination, 6 Indus. Rel. L.J. 313 (1984).Google Scholar

13 Hammerman, A Decade of New Opportunity (1984).Google Scholar

14 Blumrosen, Black Employment and the Law 66–74 (1971).Google Scholar

15 EEOC v. Shell Oil Co., 103 S. Ct. 1181 (1983).Google Scholar

16 Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424 (1971).Google Scholar

17 Exec. Order No. 11,246, 30 Fed. Reg. 12,319, as amended at 42 U.S.C. 2000 (e) (1982).Google Scholar

18 Schlei & Grossman, Employment Discrimination Law ch. 10 (2d ed. 1983).Google Scholar

19 Eggleston v. Chicago Journeymen Plumbers, 657 F.2d 890, 897–901 (7th Cir. 1981); Note, “Who Is a Negro” Revisited, Determining Individual Racial Status for the Purposes of Affirmative Action, 35 U. Fla. L. Rev. 683, 685–90 (1983).Google Scholar

20 The Rutgers Law School special admissions program was initially developed for black applicants, and the number of seats was defined accordingly. Expansion took place when Hispanic students were admitted; the program then stabilized. Asian students have now been included, as have disadvantaged whites. An informal approach to the numbers of admissions has left the school with flexibility and has given the various student groupings a sense of inclusion. This approach would be impossible if subgroupings were formally recognized.Google Scholar

21 Naipaul, supra note 10.Google Scholar

22 Blumrosen, , The Group Interest Concept, Employment Discrimination and Legislative Intent: The Fallacy of Connecticut v. Teal , 20 Harv. J. on Legis. 99 (1983).Google Scholar

23 Connecticut v. Teal, 457 U.S. 440 (1982).Google Scholar

24 Also see 2 Spear, A History of India 256 (1983).Google Scholar

25 480 F.2d 1159 (D.C. Cir. 1973).Google Scholar

26 608 F.2d 1319 (9th Cir. 1979). See Heckler v. Chaney, 53 U.S.L.W. 4385 (1985), for the most recent and restrictive opinion by the Supreme Court in this area.Google Scholar

27 See Justice Marshall's opinion in Heckler v. Chaney , 53 U.S.L.W. at 4390.Google Scholar

28 University of Cal. Regents v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978); United Steelworkers v. Weber, 443 U.S. 193 (1979); Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 U.S. 448 (1980).Google Scholar

29 208 U.S. 161 (1908).Google Scholar

30 San Antonio School Dist. v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973).Google Scholar

31 401 U.S. 424 (1971).Google Scholar

32 See Hammerman, , supra note 13; Blumrosen, supra note 12.Google Scholar

33 Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977).Google Scholar

34 29 U.S.C. § 623 (1976).Google Scholar

35 Blumrosen, Interpreting the ADEA: Intent or Impact, in Lake, ed., Age Discrimination in Employment Act (EEAC) (1982).Google Scholar

36 Our Weber decision upheld a 50% set-aside of training positions as not unnecessarily trammeling the rights of the majority. Our Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection require annual evaluation of “adverse impact.” Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures 1978, 29 C.F.R § 1607.15 (A) 2 (1985).Google Scholar

37 Morrow v. Crisler, 491 F.2d 1053 (5th Cir. 1974).Google Scholar

38 29 C.F.R. § 1607.11 (1985).Google Scholar

39 401 U.S. at 424.Google Scholar

40 See supra note 36.Google Scholar

41 See Blumrosen, , supra note 35.Google Scholar

42 651 F.2d 520 (7th Cir. 1981).Google Scholar

43 See Anderson v. City of Bessemer, N.C., 53 U.S.L.W. 4314 (1985), in which the testimony of the lone female member of a selection committee that picked a male was crucial to the establishment of discrimination.Google Scholar

44 Yes, under 41 C.F.R § 60–2.11(b) (1984), with respect to government contractors; possibly not under Title VII. See Hazelwood School Dist. v. United States, 433 U.S. 299, 307 (1977): “non-discriminatory hiring practices will… result in a workforce … representative of the racial and ethnic composition of the … community from which employees are hired.”Google Scholar

45 Supra note 22.Google Scholar

46 The Rutgers Law School minority admissions program has been of the over-and-above configuration. I can see merit in the view that once significant numbers of minority admittees gain entrance through the regular admissions process, it is appropriate to shift to a guaranteed-minimum program as a first step in phasing down special admissions programs.Google Scholar

47 Blumrosen, supra note 22.Google Scholar

48 See Jaffe, , Illusion of the Ideal Administration, 86 Harv. L. Rev. 1183 (1973).Google Scholar

49 Blumrosen, supra note 12; Hammerman, supra note 13.Google Scholar

50 Abella, Royal Commission Report, supra note 5.Google Scholar

51 Leonard, The Effectiveness of Equal Employment Law and Affirmative Action Regulation (unpublished paper prepared for University of Wisconsin Conference on Title VII–-Civil Rights Act of 1964 at Twenty, Madison, Apr. 1985).Google Scholar

52 Hammerman, supra note 13; Blumrosen, supra note 12.Google Scholar

53 See Kirkland v. New York State Dep't of Corrections, 520 F.2d 420, 429 (2d Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 429 U.S. 823 (1976).Google Scholar

54 See Weber, , 443 U.S. at 193; Bakke, 438 U.S. at 265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

55 Hammerman, supra note 13, at 8–9.Google Scholar

56 See Spear, , supra note 24, at 251.Google Scholar

57 Blumrosen, , Quotas, Common Sense and Law in Labor Relations, 29 Rutgers L. Rev. 675 (1974).Google Scholar

58 See Sigler, , Minority Rights: A Comparative Analysis (1983).Google Scholar

59 Rhoodie, Discrimination in the Constitutions of the World (1984), discusses and supports a more extended recognition of group claims.Google Scholar

60 Note, The Constitutional Imperative of Proportional Representation, 94 Yale L.J. 163 (1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

61 97 Eng. Rep. 676, 2 Burrow 1005 (1760).Google Scholar