Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T12:00:53.276Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Shellfish Collection and Community Connections in Eighteenth-Century Native New England

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Ryan Hunter ,
Stephen W. Silliman  and
David B. Landon
Ryan Hunter
Affiliation:
Midwest Archeological Center, National Park Service, Lincoln, Nebraska 68508 ([email protected])
Stephen W. Silliman
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts 02125 ([email protected])
David B. Landon
Affiliation:
Andrew Fiske Memorial Center for Archaeological Research, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts 02125 ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In recent years, the archaeology of Native American sites in colonial contexts has increased our understanding of how indigenous communities persisted in challenging times. Greater attention to practices helps to create a more enriched picture, especially when set in the context of food and consumption. This article considers shellfish remains excavated from three households on the Eastern Pequot reservation, located several kilometers Inland from the Connecticut coast in southern New England, to explore the role that shellfish gathering played in eighteenth-century subsistence and social practices in Native New England. Household variability in the specific species and quantity consumed, as well as disposal methods, provide insight into internal community decision making. Moreover, eighteenth-century reservation demographics strongly accentuate the role of women in the provision of these foodstuffs and in maintaining cultural connections to the coast and other off-reservation communities. Practices of gathering and consuming shellfish thus provide vectors of change and continuity in Native American communities of colonial New England, showing how these practices represent not only connections to a deeper past, but also ongoing and even resurging practices to engage with a colonial present.

Resumen

Resumen

En años recientes, la arqueología de sitios nativo americanos en contextos coloniales han aumentado nuestro entendimiento sobre como han persistido las comunidades indígenas durante épocas de dureza. Mayor atención a la práctica, ayuda a crear una imagen más enriquecedora, especialmente dados los contextos alimentarios y consumo. Este artículo considera los remanentes de caracol excavados en tres unidades de vivienda en la reservación de Eastern Pequot, localizado a varias millas de la costa de Connecticut al sur de la Nueva Inglaterra, para explorar el papel que la recolección de caracol jugó en la subsistencia y prácticas sociales de la Nueva Inglaterra del siglo XVIII. Variabilidad doméstica y cantidad en las especies consumidas, al igual que los métodos de disponer de ellos, proveen entendimiento sobre la toma de decisiones internas de la comunidad. Además, la demográfica de las reservaciones del siglo XVIII acentúan grandemente el papel de las mujeres en proveer dichos alimentos y en mantener conexiones culturales con la costa y comunidades fuera de la reservación. La práctica de la recolección y consumo de caracol provee entonces vectores de cambio y continuidad de comunidades nativo americanas de la Nueva Inglaterra colonial, demostrando como éstas prácticas representan no solamente conexiones a un pasado profundo, pero también la continuidad e inclusive el resurgir de prácticas para enfrentar el presente colonial.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 79 , Issue 4 , October 2014 , pp. 712 - 729
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Bernstein, David J. 1990 Prehistoric Seasonality Studies in Coastal Southern New England. American Anthropologist 92:96–15.Google Scholar
Bernstein, David J. 1993 Prehistoric Subsistence on the Southern New England Coast: The Record from Narragansett Bay. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Bernstein, David J. 2002 Late Woodland Use of Coastal Resources at Mount Sinai Harbor, Long Island, New York. In A Lasting Impression: Coastal, Lithic and Ceramic Research in New England Archaeology, edited by Jordan Kerber, pp. 27–40. Praeger, West Port, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Bradley, James W. 2011 Re-Visiting Wampum and Other Seventeenth-Century Shell Games. Archaeology of Eastern North America 39:25–51.Google Scholar
Bragdon, Kathleen 1996 Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Bragdon, Kathleen 2009 Native People of Southern New England, 1650–1775. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Campisi, Jack 1990 The Emergence of the Mashantucket Pequot Tribe 1637–1975. In The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation, edited by Laurence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, pp. 117–140. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Cave, Alfred A. 1996 The Pequot War. University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst.Google Scholar
Cerrato, Robert M., Lightfoot, Kent G., and Wallace, Heather V. E. 1993 Prehistoric Shellfish-Harvesting Strategies: Implications from the Growth Patterns of Soft Shell Clams (Mya arenarid). Antiquity 67:358–369.Google Scholar
Cipolla, Craig N. 2005 Negotiating Boundaries of Colonialism: Nineteenth-Century Lifeways on the Eastern Pequot Reservation, North Stonington, Connecticut. Unpublished Master's thesis, Historical Archaeology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts Boston.Google Scholar
Cipolla, Craig N. 2008 Signs of Identity, Signs of Memory. Archaeological Dialogues 15:196–215.Google Scholar
Cipolla, Craig N., Silliman, Stephen W., and Landon, David B. 2007 “Making Do:” Nineteenth-Century Subsistence Practices on the Eastern Pequot Reservation. Northeast Anthropology 14:41–64.Google Scholar
Claassen, Cheryl 1998 Shells. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Dawdy, Shannon L. 2010 “A Wild Taste”: Food and Colonialism in Eigh teenth-Century Louisiana. Ethnohistory 57:389–414.Google Scholar
Den Ouden, Amy E. 2005 Beyond Conquest: Native Peoples and the Struggle for History in New England. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Den Ouden, Amy E. 2012 Colonial Violence and the Gendering of Post-War Terrain in Southern New England: Native Women and Rights to Reservation Land in Eighteenth-Century Connecticut. Landscapes of Violence 2(1):Article 3.Google Scholar
Dincauze, Dena F. 1990 A Capsule Prehistory of Southern New England. In Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation, edited by Lawrence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, pp. 19–33. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Dincauze, Dena F. 1996 Deconstructing Shell Middens in New England. Review of Archaeology 17:1:45–49.Google Scholar
Erlandson, Jon M. 1988 The Role of Shellfish in Prehistoric Economies: A Protein Perspective. American Antiquity 53:102–109.Google Scholar
Fedore, Michael 2008 Consumption and Colonialism: A Zooarchaeological Analysis of Two Eighteenth-Century Sites on the Eastern Pequot Reservation. Unpublished Master's thesis, Historical Archaeology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts Boston.Google Scholar
Ferris, Neal 2009 The Archaeology of Native Lived Colonialism: Challenging History in the Great Lakes. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frink, Liam 2009 The Social Role of Technology in Coastal Alaska. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 13:282–302.Google Scholar
Frink, Liam 2010 Collective Identity and Religious Colonialism in Coastal Western Alaska. In Across the Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, AD. 1400–1900, edited by Laura Scheiber and Mark Mitchell, pp. 239–257. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Gifford-Gonzalez, Diane, and Sunseri, Jun U. 2007 Foodways on the Frontier: Animal Exploitation and Identity at an Early Colonial Pueblo in New Mexico. In Archaeology, Food, and Identity, edited by Katheryn Twiss, pp. 260–287. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Graesch, Anthony P., Bernard, Julienne, and Noah, Anna 2010 A Cross-Cultural Study of Colonialism and Indigenous Foodways in Western North America. In Across the Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, A.D. 1400–1900, edited by Laura Scheiber and Mark Mitchell, pp. 212–238. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Green, Lance, and Plane, Mark R. (editors) 2010 American Indians the Market Economy, 1775–1850. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Harper, Ross K., Harper, Mary G., and Coulette, Bruce 2001 Foodways in 18th-Century Connecticut. CRM 4:13–15.Google Scholar
Hauptman, Laurence M. 1990 The Pequot War and Its Legacies. In The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation, edited by Lawrence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, pp. 69–81. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Hauptman, Laurence M., and Wherry, James D. (editors) 1990 Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Hayden, Anna K. 2012 Household Spaces: 18th- and 19th-century Spatial Practices on the Eastern Pequot Reservation. Unpublished Master's thesis, Historical Archaeology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts Boston.Google Scholar
Hollis, Timothy 2013 Architectural Debris and Construction Sequencing at an 18th-Century Rural Native American Household in Connecticut. Unpublished Master's thesis, Historical Archaeology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts Boston.Google Scholar
Holmes, Sarah L. 2007 “In Behalf of Myself & My People”: Mashantucket Pequot Strategies in Defense of Their Land Rights. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs.Google Scholar
Hunter, Ryan 2012 Coastal Connections and Reservation Contexts: Eastern Pequot Collection and Consumption of Shellfish in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Unpublished Master's thesis, Historical Archaeology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts Boston.Google Scholar
Jordan, Kurt A. 2008 The Seneca Restoration, 1715–1754: An Iroquois Local Political Economy. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Jordan, Kurt A. 2009 Colonies, Colonialism, and Cultural Entanglement: The Archaeology of Postcolumbian Intercultural Relations. In International Handbook of Historical Archeology, edited by Teresita Majewski and David Gaimster, pp. 31–59. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Jordan, Kurt A. 2010 Not Just “One Site against the World:” Seneca Iroquois Intercommunity Connections and Autonomy, 1550–1779. In Across a Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, 1400–1900, edited by Laura L. Scheiber and Mark D. Mitchell, pp. 79–106. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Kerber, Jordan E. 1985 Digging for Clams: Shell Midden Analysis in New England. North American Archaeologist 6:97–113.Google Scholar
Kerber, Jordan E. 1996 Interpreting Diverse Marine Shell Deposits of the Woodland Period in New England and New York: Interrelationships among Subsistence, Symbolism, and Ceremonialism. Northeast Anthropology 57:57–68.Google Scholar
Lapham, Heather A. 2005 Hunting for Hides: Deerskin, Status, and Cultural Change in the Protohistoric Appalachians. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Liebmann, Matthew 2008 The Innovative Materiality of Revitalization Movements: Lessons from the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. American Anthropologist 110:360–372.Google Scholar
Liebmann, Matthew 2012 Revolt: An Archaeological History of Pueblo Resistance and Revitalization in 17th-Century New Mexico. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent G. 1995 Culture Contact Studies: Redefining the Relationship between Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology. American Antiquity 60:199–217.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent G. 2006 Missions, Furs, Gold, and Manifest Destiny: Rethinking an Archaeology of Colonialism for Western North America. In Historical Archaeology, edited by Martin Hall and Stephen W. Silliman, pp. 272–292. Blackwell Publishing, Maiden, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent G., and Cerrato, Robert M. 1988 Shellfish Exploitation in Coastal New York. Journal of Field Archaeology 15:141–144.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent G., Martinez, Antoinette, and Schiff, Ann M. 1998 Daily Practice and Material Culture in Pluralistic Social Settings: An Archaeological Study of Culture Change and Persistence from Fort Ross, California. American Antiquity 63:199–222.Google Scholar
Loren, Diana DiPaolo 2008 In Contact: Bodies and Spaces in the Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Eastern Woodlands. Rowan & Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland.Google Scholar
Luedtke, Barbara E. 2000 Archaeology on the Boston Harbor Islands after 25 Years. Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society 61:2–11.Google Scholar
Mancini, Jason R. 2009 Beyond Reservation: Indian Survivance in Southern New England and Eastern Long Island, 1713–1861. PhD. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs.Google Scholar
Mandell, Daniel R. 2007 Tribe, Race, History: Native Americans in Southern New England, 1780–1880. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.Google Scholar
McBride, Kevin A. 1990 The Historical Archaeology of the Mashantucket Pequot, 1637–1900: A Preliminary Analysis. In The Pequots: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation, edited by Laurence Hauptman and James Wherry, pp. 96–116. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
McBride, Kevin A. 1993 “Ancient & Crazie:” Pequot Lifeways during the Historic Period. In Algonkians of New England: Past and Present, edited by Peter Benes, pp. 63–75. Annual Proceedings of the 1991 Dublin Folklife Seminar, Boston University.Google Scholar
McBride, Kevin A. 1994 Cultures in Transition: The Eastern Long Island Sound Culture Area in the Prehistoric and Contact Periods. Connecticut History 35(1):5–21.Google Scholar
McBride, Kevin A. 1996 The Legacy of Robin Cassacinamon: Mashantucket Leadership in the Historic Period. In Northeastern Indian Lives, 1632–1816, edited by Robert Grumet, pp. 74–93. University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst.Google Scholar
McBride, Kevin A. 2005 Transformation by Degree: Eighteenth Century Native American Land Use. In Eighteenth Century Native Communities of Southern New England in the Colonial Context, edited by Jack Campisi,pp. 35–56. Occasional Paper No. 1. Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center, Mashantucket, Connecticut.Google Scholar
McBride, Kevin A. 2006 Fort Monhantic, Connecticut: The Pequot in King Philip's War. In Native Forts of the Long Island Sound Area, edited by Gaynell Stone, pp. 321–334. Suffolk County Archaeological Association, Stony Brook, New York.Google Scholar
McMullen, Ann 1991 Native Basketry, Basketry Styles, and Changing Group Identity in Southern New England. Annual Proceedings of the Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife 16:76–88.Google Scholar
Moss, Madonna L. 1993 Shellfish, Gender, and Status on the Northwest Coast: Reconciling Archeological, Ethnographic, and Ethnohistorical Records of the Tlingit. American Anthropologist 95:631–652.Google Scholar
Nassaney, Michael S. 2004 Native American Gender Politics and Material Culture in Seventeenth-Century Southeastern New England. Journal of Social Archaeology 4:334–367.Google Scholar
Oland, Maxine, Hart, Siobhan, and Frink, Liam (editors) 2012 Decolonizing Indigenous Histories: Exploring “Prehistoric/Colonial” Transitions in Archaeology. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Osborn, Alan J. 1977 Strandloopers, Mermaids, and Other Fairy Tales: Ecological Determinants of Marine Resource Utilization—The Peruvian Case. In For Theory Building in Archaeology, edited by Lewis R. Binford, pp. 157–205. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Panich, Lee 2013 Archaeologies of Persistence: Reconsidering the Legacies of Colonialism in Native North America. American Antiquity 78:105–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pavao-Zuckerman, Barnet 2007 Deerskins and Domesticates: Creek Subsistence and Economic Strategies in the Historic Period. American Antiquity 72:5–33.Google Scholar
Pavao-Zuckerman, Barnet, and LaMotta, Vincent M. 2007 Missionization and Economic Change in the Pimería Alta: The Zooarchaeology of San Agustín de Tucson. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 11:241–268.Google Scholar
Pavao-Zuckerman, Barnet, and Reitz, Elizabeth J. 2011 Eurasian Domesticated Livestock in Native American Economies. In The Subsistence Economies of Indigenous North American Societies: A Handbook, edited by Bruce D. Smith, pp. 577–591. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Richmond, Trudie Lamb, and Den Ouden, Amy E. 2004 Recovering Gendered Political Histories: Local Struggles and Native Women's Resistance in Colonial Southern New England. In Reinterpreting New England Indians and the Colonial Experience, edited by Neal Salisbury and Colin Calloway, pp. 174–231. Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Boston.Google Scholar
Rubertone, Patricia 2001 Grave Undertakings: An Archaeology of Roger Williams and the Narragansett Indians. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Salisbury, Neal 1984 Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643. Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York.Google Scholar
Salwen, Burt 1970 Cultural Inferences from Faunal Remains: Examples from Three Northeast Coastal Sites. Pennsylvania Archaeologist 40:1–8.Google Scholar
Sassaman, Kenneth 2004 Structure and Practice in the Archaic Southeast. In North American Archaeology, edited by Timothy K. Pauketat and Diana D. Loren, pp. 79–107. Blackwell, Oxford.Google Scholar
Scheiber, Laura L., and Mitchell, Mark D. (editors) 2010 Across a Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, 1400–1900. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Scott, Elizabeth 2007 “Pigeon Soup … and Plover in Pyramids:” French Foodways in New France and the Illinois Country. In Archaeology, Food, and Identity, edited by Katheryn Twiss, pp. 243–259. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2001 Agency, Practical Politics, and the Archaeology of Culture Contact. Journal of Social Archaeology 1:184–204.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2005 Culture Contact or Colonialism? Challenges in the Archaeology of Native North America. American Antiquity 70(1):55–74.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2009 Change and Continuity, Practice and Memory: Native American Persistence in Colonial New England. American Antiquity 74:211–230.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2012 Between the Longue Durée and the Short Purée: Postcolonial Archaeologies of Indigenous History in Colonial North America. In Decolonizing Indigenous Histories: Exploring “Prehistoric/Colonial” Transitions in Archaeology, edited by Maxine Oland, Siobhan M. Hart, and Liam Frink, pp. 113–132. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2014 Archaeologies of Survivance and Residence: Reflections on the Historical Archaeology of Indigenous People. In The Archaeology of the Colonized and Its Contribution to Global Archaeological Theory, edited by Neal Ferris, Rodney Harrison, and Michael Wilcox. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 57–75.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W., and Sebastian Dring, Katherine H. 2008 Working on Pasts for Futures: Eastern Pequot Field School Archaeology in Connecticut. In Collaborating at the Trowel's Edge: Teaching and Learning in Indigenous Archaeology, edited by Stephen W. Silliman, pp. 67–87. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W., and Witt, Thomas A. 2010 The Complexities of Consumption: Eastern Pequot Cultural Economics in 18th-Century Colonial New England. Historical Archaeology 44(4):46–68.Google Scholar
Speck, Frank G., and Dexter, Ralph W. 1948 Utilization of n+Marine Life by the Wampanoag Indians of Massachusetts. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 38:257–265.Google Scholar
Spector, Janet 1993 What This Awl Means: Feminist Archaeology at a Wahpeton Dakota Village. Minnesota Historical Society Press, St. Paul.Google Scholar
Spiess, Arthur E., and Lewis, Robert A. 2001 The Turner Farm Fauna: 500 Years of Hunting and Fishing in Penobscot Bay, Maine. Occasional Publications No.11. Maine Archaeological Society, Augusta.Google Scholar
Stahl, Ann B. 2012 When Does History Begin? Material Continuity and Change in West Africa. In Lost in Transition: Decolonizing Indigenous Histories at the “Prehistoric/Colonial” Intersection in Archaeology, edited by Maxine Oland, Siobhan Hart, and Liam Frink, pp. 158–177. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Stein, Julie K. 1992 Deciphering a Shell Midden. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Thompson, Victor D., and Worth, John E. 2011 Dwellers by the Sea: Native American Adaptations along the Southern Coasts of Eastern North America. Journal of Archaeological Research 19:51–101.Google Scholar
Trigg, Heather B., and Landon, David B. 2010 Labor and Agricultural Production at Sylvester Manor Plantation, Shelter Island, New York. Historical Archaeology 44(3):36–53.Google Scholar
Vasta, Meredith L. 2007 What Ails Them?: The Changing Faunal Utilization at the Mashantucket Pequot Reservation from the Late Woodland to the Early 19th Century. PhD. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2008 Gender, Race, and Labor in the Archaeology of the Spanish Colonial Americas. Current Anthropology 49:861–897.Google Scholar
Wagner, Mark 2010 A Prophet Has Arisen: The Archaeology of Nativism among the Nineteenth-Century Algonquin Peoples of Illinois. In Across a Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, 1400–1900, edited by Laura L. Scheiber and Mark D. Mitchell, pp. 107–126. University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
Wake, Thomas 1997 Subsistence, Ethnicity, and Vertebrate Resource Exploitation at Colony Ross. Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers 81:84–115.Google Scholar
Waselkov, Gregory A. 1987 Shellfish Gathering and Shell Midden Archaeology. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 10, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 93–210. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Wesson, Cameron 2008 Households and Hegemony: Early Creek Prestige Goods, Symbolic Capital, and Social Power. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Wesson, Cameron 2010 When Moral Economies and Capitalism Meet: Creek Factionalism and the Colonial Southeastern Frontier. In Across a Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, 1400–1900, edited by Laura L. Scheiber and Mark D. Mitchell, pp. 61–78. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Widmer, Randolph J. 1989 The Relationship of Ceremonial Artifacts from South Florida to the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. In The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Artifacts and Analysis, edited by Patricia Galloway, pp. 166–179. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Williams, Courtney 2014 Changing Environments and Economies: A Comprehensive Zooarchaeological Study of the Eastern Pequot. Unpublished Master's thesis, Historical Archaeology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts Boston.Google Scholar
Williams, Lorraine E. 1972 Ft. Skantok and Ft. Corchaug: A Comparative Study of Seventeenth Century Culture Contact in the Long Island Sound Area. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, New York University, New York.Google Scholar
Williams, Mary Beth, and Bendremer, Jeffery 1997 The Archaeology of Maize, Pots and Seashells: Gender Dynamics in Late Woodland and Contact Period New England. In Women and Prehistory, edited by Cheryl Claassen and Rosemary Joyce, pp. 136–152. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Williams, Roger 1973 [1643] A Key into the Language of America. Gregory Dextor, London. 1973 reprint, Wayne State University Press, Detroit.Google Scholar
Witt, Thomas A. 2007 Negotiating Colonial Markets: The Navigation of 18th-Century Colonial Economies by the Eastern Pequot. Unpublished Master's thesis, Historical Archaeology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts, Boston.Google Scholar
Wood, William 1977 [1634] New England's Prospect. Thomas Cotes, London. 1977 edition, edited by Alden Vaughan, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst.Google Scholar