Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T18:58:13.623Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Recovery and First Analysis of an Early Holocene Human Skeleton from Kennewick, Washington

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

James C. Chatters
James C. Chatters*
Affiliation:
Applied Paleoscience, 648 Saint St., Richland, WA 99352, Department of Anthropology, Central Washington University, Ellensburg WA 98926, [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The nearly-complete, well-preserved skeleton of a Paleoamerican male was found by chance near Kennewick, Washington, in 1996. Although analysis was quickly suspended by the U.S. government, initial osteological, archaeological, and geological studies provide a glimpse into the age and life of this individual. A radiocarbon age of 8410 ± 60 B.P., stratigraphic position in a widely-dated alluvial terrace, and an early-Cascade style projectile point healed into the pelvis date the find to the late Early Holocene. Initial osteological analysis describes the man as middle-aged, standing 173.1 ± 3.6 cm tall and weighing approximately 70-75 kg. Healthy as a child, he later suffered repeatedly from injuries to his skull, left arm, chest, and hip, in addition to minor osteoarthritis and periodontal disease. His physical features, teeth, and skeletal measurements show him to be an outlier relative to modern human populations, but place him closer to Pacific Islanders and Ainu than to Late Prehistoric Amerinds or any other modern group. Despite his uniqueness relative to modern peoples, he is not significantly different from other Paleoamerican males in most characteristics.

Resumen

Resumen

El esqueleto preservado y casi completo de un hombre paleoamericano fue descubiertopor casualidad cerca de Kennewick, Washington, en 1996. Aunque el ándlisis fue rapidamente suspendido por el gobierno de los Estados Unidos, estudios osteológicos, arqueológicos, y geológicos iniciales proveen informatión sobre la edad y vida de este individuo. Una edad radiocarbónica de 840 ± 60A.P., la posición estratigráfica en una terraza aluvial de edad conocida, y una punta de proyectil de estilo Cascade temprano en la pelvis datan este hallazgo al Holoceno temprano. El análisis osteológico inicial describe a un hombre de edad media, del73.1 ± 3.6 cm de alto y de 70-75 kg de peso. Sus rasgos fisicos, dientes, y mediadas esqueletales lo ponen más cerca de los habitantes de las islas pacíficas que de los amerindios prehistoricos tardíos o de cualquier otra población moderna. Sano en su juventud, el sufrió heridas en su cráneo, brazo izquierdo, pehco, y cadera, además de osteoartritis y enfermedad periodontal. No se ha determinado la causa de su muerte, pew sus hueso proveen un visión rara y pasajera de la vida de los paleoamericanos y sugiere preguntas sobre la complejidad y el tiempo del poblamiento de América.

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 65 , Issue 2 , April 2000 , pp. 291 - 316
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Ames, K. N., Dumond, D. E., Galm, J. R., and Minor, R. 1998 Prehistory of the Southern Plateau. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 12 Plateau, edited by Walker, D. L., pp. 29–48. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Atwater, B. S. 1986 Pleistocene Glacial-Lake Deposits of the Sanpoil River Valley, Northeastern Washington. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1661. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Bacon, C. R. 1983 Eruptive History of Mount Mazama and Crater Lake Caldera, Cascade Range, U.S.A. Journal ofVolcanology and. Geothermal Research 18 : 57–117.Google Scholar
Baker, V. R., Bjornstad, B. N., Busacca, A. J., Fecht, K. R., Kiver, E. P., Moody, U. L., Rigby, J. G., Stradling, D. F., and Tallman, A. M.. 1991 Quaternary Geology of the Columbia Plateau. In Quaternary Nonglacial Geology : Coterminous United States, edited by Morrison, R. B., pp. 215–250. Geological Society of America, Boulder.Google Scholar
Bass, W. M. 1987 Human Osteology : A Laboratory and Field Manual. 3rd ed. Missouri Archaeological Society, Columbia.Google Scholar
Beeson, A., and Saegesser, F. 1983 Color Atlas of Chest Trauma. Medical Economics Books, Oradell, NJ.Google Scholar
Bense, J. A. 1972 The Cascade Phase : A Study in the Effect oftheAltithermal on a Cultural System. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.Google Scholar
Birdsell, J. B. 1951 The Problem of the Peopling of the Americas as Viewed from Asia. In The Physical Anthropology of the American Indian, edited by Laughlin, W. S., pp. 1–68. Edwards Brothers, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G. (editors) 1994 Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas Center for The Study of the First Americas, Oregon State University, CorvaUis.Google Scholar
Brace, C. L. 1975 Comment on Wallace : Did la Ferrassie I Use His Teeth as a Tool? Current Anthropology 16 : 396–397.Google Scholar
Brace, C. L., and Hunt, K. D. 1990 A Nonracial Craniofacial Perspective on Human Variation : A(ustralia) to Z(uni). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 82 : 341–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, S. T., and Suchey, J. M. 1990 Skeletal Age Determination based on the Os Pubis : A Comparison of the Ascadi-Nemeskeri and Suchey-Brooks Methods. Human Evolution 5 : 227–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buikstra, J. E., and Ubelacker, D. H. 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Research Series 44. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Butler, B. R. 1961 The Old Cordilleran Culture in the Pacific Northwest. Occasional Paper No. 5. Idaho State College Museum, Pocatello.Google Scholar
Butler, B. R. 1962 Contributions to the Prehistory of the Columbia Plateau : A Report on the Palouse and Craig Mountain Sections. Occasional Paper No. 9. Idaho State College Museum, Pocatello.Google Scholar
Cavalli-Sforza L., , Minozzoi, P., and Piazza, A. 1994 The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Chatters, J. C. 1997 Encounter with an Ancestor. Anthropology Newsletter 38(1) : 9,10.Google Scholar
Chatters, J. C. 1998 Human Biological History, Not Race. Anthropology Newsletter 39(2) : 59, 21.Google Scholar
Chatters, J. C. 2000 Repeated, Severe Trauma in a Paleoamerican Skeleton from Kennewick, Washington, U.S.A. Manuscript on file, Applied Paleoscience, Richland, Washington.Google Scholar
Chatters, J. C, and Hoover, K. A. 1992 Response of the Columbia River Fluvial System to Holocene Climatic Change. Quaternary Research 37 : 42–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatters, J. C, Neves, W A., and Blum, M. 1999 The Kennewick Man : A First Multivariate Analysis. Current Research in the Pleistocene 16 : 87–90.Google Scholar
Chatters, J. C, and Pokotylo, D. 1998 Prehistory : Introduction. In Plateau, edited by Walker, D. L., pp. 73–80. Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 12. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Cleveland, G., Cochran, B., Ginnegar, J., and Hammatt, H. 1976 Archaeological Reconnaissance on the Mid Columbia and Lower Snake River Reservoirs for the Walla Walla District Corps of Engineers. Project Reports 27. Washington Archaeological Research Center, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington.Google Scholar
Cybulski, J. S., Howes, D. E., Haggarty, J. C., and Eldridge, M. 1981 An Early Human Skeleton from South-Central British Columbia : Dating and Bioarchaeological Inference. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 5 : 49–57.Google Scholar
Dillehay, T., and Meltzer, D. J. (editors) 1991 The First Americans, Search and Research. CRC Press, Boston.Google Scholar
Edgar, H. J. H. 1997 Paleopathology of the Wizards Beach Man and Spirit Cave Mummy. Nevada State Historical Quarterly 40 : 57–61.Google Scholar
Fagan, J. 1999 Analysis of the Lithic Artifact Embedded in the Columbia Park Remains. Report submitted to the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Fiedel, S. J. 1999 Older Than We Thought : Implications of Corrected Dates for Paleoindians. American Antiquity 64 : 95–116.Google Scholar
Franklin, J. E, and Dyrness, C. T. 1988 Natural Vegetation of Washington and Oregon. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Fryxell, R., and Daugherty, R. D. 1963 Schematic Geoarchaeological Chronology of Eastern Washington and Related Areas. Report of Investigations 21. Laboratory of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington.Google Scholar
Galm, J. R, Hartmann, G. D., Masten, R. A., and Stephenson, G. O. 1981 A Cultural Resource Overview of Bonneville Power Administration's Mid- Columbia Project, Central Washington. Eastern Washington University Reports in Archaeology and History 100-116. Archaeological and Historical Services, Cheney.Google Scholar
Genoves, S. C. 1967 Proportionality of Long Bones and Their Relation to Stature among Mesoamericans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology supplement 26 : 67–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gill, G. W 1984 A Forensic Test Case for a New Method of Geographical Race Determination. In Human Identification, edited by Rathbun, T. and Buikstra, J., pp. 329–339.Google Scholar
Charles, C. Thomas, Springfield. 1995 Challenge on the Frontier : Discerning American Indians from Whites Osteologically. Journal of Forensic Sciences 40 : 783–788.Google Scholar
Gough, S. 1995 Description and Interpretation of Late Quaternary Sediments in the Rocky Reach of the Columbia River Valley, Douglas County, Washington. Unpublished Master's thesis, Departments of Geology, Geography, and Anthropology, Eastern Washington University Google Scholar
Green, T. J., Cochran, B., Fenton, T. W.,, Woods, J. C., Titmus Cheney, G. L., Tieszen, L., Davis, M. A., and Miller, S. J. 1998 The Buhl Burial : A Paleoindian Woman from Southern Idaho. American Antiquity 63 : 437–456.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. H., Turner, C. G., and Zegura, S. L. 1986 The Settlement of the Americas : A Comparison of Linguistic, Dental and Genetic Evidence. Current Anthropology 27 : 477–197.Google Scholar
Hammatt, H. H. 1977 Late Quaternary Stratigraphy and Archaeological Chronology in the Lower Granite Reservoir Area, Lower Snake River, Washington. Master's thesis, Washington State University, Pullman. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Hartmann, G. D. 1986 Preliminary Test Excavations at Three Prehistoric Archaeological Sites in Franklin County, Washington. Eastern Washington University Reports in Archaeology and History, No. 100-56. Archaeological and Historical Services, Cheney, Washington.Google Scholar
Hillson, S. 1996 Dental Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hinton, R. J. 1981 Form and Patterning of Anterior Tooth Wear among Aboriginal Human Groups. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 54 : 555–564.Google Scholar
Howells, W. W. 1973 Cranial Variation in Man; A Study of Multivariate Analysis of Patterns of Difference among Human Populations. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol 67. Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Howells, W. W. 1989 Skull Shapes and the Map. Craniometric Analysis in the Dispersion of Modern Homo. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol 79. Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hrdlicka, A. 1937 Early Man in America : What Have the Bones to Say? In Early Man as Depicted by the Authorities at the International Symposium at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, March 1937, edited by McCurdy, G. G., pp. 93–104. Lippincott, London.Google Scholar
Huckleberry, G., Stafford, T. W Jr., and Chatters, J. C. 1998 Preliminary Geoarchaeological Studies at Columbia Park, Kennewick, Washington, USA. Report submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla District.Google Scholar
Huckleberry, G., and Stein, J. K. 1999 Analysis of Sediments Associated with Human Remains Found at Columbia Park, Kennewick, WA. Report Submitted to the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Iscan, M. Y, Roth, S. R., and Wright, T. K. 1984 Metamorphosis at the Sternal Rib End : A New Method to Estimate Age at Death in White Males. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 65 : 147–156.Google Scholar
Jackson, P. 1985 Climate. In Atlas of the Pacific Northwest, edited by Kimerling, A. J. and Jackson, P.L. pp. 48–57. 7th ed. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Jantz, R. L., and Owsley, D. W. 1997 Pathology, Taphonomy, and Cranial Morphometries of the Spirit Cave Mummy. Nevada State Historical Quarterly 40 : 62–84.Google Scholar
Jantz, R. L., and Owsley, D. W. 1998 How Many Populations of Early Americans Were There? American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement 26 : 228.Google Scholar
Jenks, A. E. 1937 Minnesota's Browns Valley Man and Associated Burial Artifacts. Memoir No. 49. American Anthropological Association, Menasha, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Kennedy, G. 1986 The Relationship between Audotory Exostosis and Cold Water : A Latitudinal Analysis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 71 : 401–415.Google Scholar
Kirsch, M. M., and Sloan, H.. 1977 Blunt Chest Trauma, General Principles of Management. Little, Brown, Boston.Google Scholar
Lahr, M. M. 1997 History in the Bones. Evolutionary Anthropology 6 : 2–6.Google Scholar
Laughlin, W. S. and Harper, A. B. (editors) 1976 The First Americans : Origins, Affinities, and Adaptations. Gustav Fischer, New York.Google Scholar
Leonhardy, F. C, and Rice, D. G. 1970 A Proposed Culture Typology for the Lower Snake River Region, Southeastern Washington. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 4 : 1–29.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, C. O., Meindl, R. S., Pryzbeck, T. R., and Mensforth, R. P. 1985 Chronological Metamorphosis of the Auricular Surface of the Ilium, A New Method for the Determination of Adult Skeletal Age at Death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68 : 15–28.Google Scholar
Lovvorn, M.., Gill, G. W, Carlson, G. F., Bozell, J. R., and Steinacher, T. L. 1999 Microevolution and the Skeletal Traits of a Middle Archaic Burial : Metric and Multivariate Comparison to Paleoindians and Modern Amerindians. American Antiquity 64 : 527–545.Google Scholar
Mann, R. W., and Murphy, S. P. 1990 Regional Atlas of Bone Diseases. Charles C., Thomas, Springfield.Google Scholar
Mann, R. W, Symes, S. A., and Bass, W. M. 1987 Maxillary Suture Obliteration : Aging the Human Skeleton based on Intact or Fragmentary Maxilla. Journal of Forensic Science 232 : 148–157.Google Scholar
Meindl, R, S., and Lovejoy, C. O. 1989 Age Changes in the Pelvis : Implications for Paleodemography. In Age Markers in the Human Skeleton, edited by Iscan, M., pp. 137–168.Google Scholar
Charles C., Thomas, 1985 Ectocranial Suture Closure : A Revised Method for the Determination of Skeletal Age at Death based on the Lateral- Anterior Sutures. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68 : 57–66.Google Scholar
Meltzer, D. J. 1993 Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas. Evolutionary Anthropology 1 : 157–169.Google Scholar
Meltzer, D. J. 1994 The Discovery of Deep Time : A History of Views of the Peopling of the Americas. In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of he Americas edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D.G. pp. 7–26. Center for the Study of the First Americas, Oregon State University, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Meltzer, D. J. 1997 Monte Verde and the Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas. Science 276 : 754– 755.Google Scholar
Mosch, C, and Watson, P. J. 1996 The Ancient Explorer of Hourglass Cave. Evolutionary Anthropology 5 : 111–115.Google Scholar
Mullineaux, D. R. 1986 Summary of Pre-1980 Tephra-Fall Deposits Erupted from Mt. St. Helens, Washington State, U.S.A. Bulletin of Volcanology 48 : 17–26.Google Scholar
Neves, W., Mumford, D., and Zanini, M. C. 1996 Cranial Morphological Variation and the Colonization of the New World : Towards a Four-Migration Model. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 22 : 176.Google Scholar
Neves, W. A., Powell, J. F., Prous, A., and Ozolins, E. G. 1998 Lapa Vermelha IV, Hominid 1 : Morphological Affinities of the Earliest Known American. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Supplement 26 : 169.Google Scholar
Neves, W. A., and Pucciarelli, H. M. 1989 Extra-Continental Biological Relationships of Early South American Remains : A Multivariate Analysis. Ciencia eCultura 41 : 566–575.Google Scholar
Neves, W. A., and Pucciarelli, H. M. 1991 Morphological Affinities of the First Americans : An Exploratory Analysis Based on Early South American Human Remains. Journal of Human Evolution 21 : 261–273.Google Scholar
Nichols, J. 1990 Linguistic Diversity and the First Settlement of the New World. Language 66 : 475–521.Google Scholar
Ortner, D. J., and Putschar, G. J. 1981 Identification ofPathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Owsley, D. W 1998 Inventory Observations on the Kennewick Man Skeleton. Bonnichsen et al. v. United States of America, Plaintiffs’ Supplemental Report on Transfer of the Skeleton, Appendix B. United States District Court for the District of Oregon, Dec. 10, 1998.Google Scholar
Owsley, D.W, and Jantz, R. L. 1999 Databases for Paleo-American Skeletal Biology Research. In Who Were the First Americans, edited by Bonnichsen, R.. pp. 79—196. A Peopling of the Americas Publication, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Powell, J. E, and Neves, W. A. 1999 New Craniofacial and Dental Perspectives on Native American Origins. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 42 : 153–188.Google Scholar
Powell, J. F, and Rose, J. C. 1999 Report on the Osteological Assessment of the “Kennewick Man” Skeleton (CENWW.97.Kennewick). Report submitted to the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Preston, D. 1997 TheLostMan. TheNewYorker 16June : 70–81.Google Scholar
Ray, V.F 1936 Native Villages and Groupings of the Columbia Basin. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 27 : 99–152.Google Scholar
Rowe, C. R. 1988 Dislocations of the Shoulder. In The Shoulder, edited by Rowe, C. R., pp. 165–291. Churchill, Livingston, New York.Google Scholar
Ruff, C. B. 1992 Biomechanical Analysis of Archaeological Human Skeletal Samples. In Skeletal Biology of Past Peoples : Research Methods, edited by Sanders, S. R. and Katzenburg, A., pp. 37–58. Wiley-Liss, New York.Google Scholar
Ruff, C. B. 1994 Morphological Adaptation to Climate in Modern and Fossil Hominids. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 37 : 65–107.Google Scholar
Ruff, C. B., Trinkaus, E., and Holliday, T. W. 1997 Body Mass and Encephalization in Pleistocene Homo. Nature 387 : 173– 176.Google Scholar
Sandweiss, D. H., McMinnis, H., Burger, R. L., Cano, A, Ojeda, B., Paredes, R., del Carmen Sandweiss, M., and Glascock, M. D. 1998 Quebrada Jaguay : Early South American Maritime Adaptations. Science 281 : 1830–1832.Google Scholar
Schurr, T. G. 1999 A Molecular Anthropological View of the Peopling of the Americas. Paper presented at the Clovis and Beyond Conference, Santa Fe, New Mexico, October 30, 1999.Google Scholar
Scott, E. C. 1979 Dental Wear Scoring Technique. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51 : 213–218.Google Scholar
Shiner, J. L. 1961 The McNary Reservoir : A Study in Plateau Archaeology. Bulletin No. 179 : 149–266. Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Smith, B. H. 1984 Patterns of Molar Wear in Hunter-Gatherers and Agriculturalists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 63 : 39–56.Google Scholar
Steele, D.G., and Bramblett, C.A. 1988 The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Steele, D. G., and Powell, J. F. 1992 Peopling of the Americas : The Paleobiological Evidence. Human Biology 64 : 303–336.Google Scholar
Steele, D. G., and Powell, J. F. 1994 Paleobiological Evidence for the Peopling of the Americas : A Morphometric View. In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas, edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D.G. pp. 141–163. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Steele, D. G., and Powell, J. F. 1999 Peopling of the Americas : A Historical and Comparative Perspective. In Who Were the First Americans, edited by Bonnichsen, R., pp. 97–126. A Peopling of the Americas Publication, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Stewart, T. D. 1962 Anterior Femoral Curvature : Its Utility for Race Identification. Human Biology 34 : 49–62.Google Scholar
Stewart, T. D. 1979 Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. E., Kirner, D. L., Southon, J. R., and Chatters, J. C. 1998 Radiocarbon Dates of Kennewick Man. Science 280 : 1171–1172.Google Scholar
Thwaites, R. G. 1904-1905 The Original Journals of Lewis and Clark. Dodd, Mead, New York.Google Scholar
Todd, T.W 1921 Age Changes in the Pubic Bone I : The White Male Pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3 : 285–334.Google Scholar
Trinkaus, E. 1981 Neanderthal Limb Proportions and Cold Adaptation. In Aspects of Human Evolution, edited by Stringer, C., pp. 187–224. Taylor and Francis, London.Google Scholar
Trotter, M. and Gleser, G. C. 1958 A Re-evaluation of Estimation of Stature based on Measurements of Stature Taken during Life and of Long Bones after Death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 16 : 79–123.Google Scholar
Turner, C. G. II 1985 The Dental Search for the Native American Origins. In Out of Asia. Peopling the Americas and the Pacific, edited by Kirk, R. and Szathmary, E., pp. 31–78. Journal of Pacific History, Canberra.Google Scholar
Turner, C. G. II 1990 Major Features of Sundadonty and Sinodonty, Including Suggestions about East Asian Microevolution, Population History, and Late Pleistocene Relationships with Australian Aboriginals. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 82 : 295–317.Google Scholar
Wakeley, L. D., Murphy, W L., Dunbar, J. B., Warne, A. G., and Briuer, F.L. 1998 Geologic, Geoarchaeologic, and Historical Investigations of the Discovery Site of Ancient Remains in Columbia Park, Kennewick, Washington. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Technical Report GL-98-13. Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.Google Scholar
Waldron, T. 1998 A Note on the Estimation of Height from Long-Bone Measurements. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 8 : 75–77.Google Scholar
Waldvogel, F. A., Medoff, G., and Schwartz, M. W. 1971 Osteomyelitis : Clinical Features, Therapeutic Considerations, and Unusual Aspects. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield.Google Scholar
Walker, R. A., and Lovejoy, C. O. 1985 Radiographic Changes in the Clavicle and Proximal Femur and Their Use in the Determination of Skeletal Age at Death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68 : 67–78.Google Scholar
Warfel, J. H. 1974 The Extremities. 4th ed. Lea and Ferbiger, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
West, F. H. (editor) 1996a American Beginnings : The Prehistory and Paleoecology ofBeringia : University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
West, F. H. (editor) 1996b Beringia and New World Origins : The Archaeological Evidence. InAmericon Beginnings : The Prehistory and Paleoecology ofBeringia, edited by West, F. H., pp. 537–559. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Wilensky, A. O. 1934 Osteomyelitis, its Pathogenesis, Symptomology, and Treatment. Macmillan, New York.Google Scholar
Young, D. E. 1988 An Osteological Analysis of the Paleoindian Double Burial from Horn Shelter, Texas. Central Texas Archaeologist 11 : 11–115.Google Scholar