Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T08:52:27.617Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Obsidian Source Use in the Greater Yellowstone Area, Wyoming Basin, and Central Rocky Mountains

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Laura L. Scheiber
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Student Building 130, 701 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, Indiana 47405 ([email protected])
Judson Byrd Finley
Affiliation:
001 Johnson Hall, Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee 38152 ([email protected])

Abstract

Using x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis from nearly 2,300 sourced obsidian artifacts in western Wyoming, southwestern Montana, and eastern Idaho, we demonstrate regional diachronic changes in access to and preference for particular obsidian sources throughout the West. We focus on both (I) long-term patterns of obsidian use that may inform us about the timing of precontact migrations of Numic (Shoshone) speakers into the Rocky Mountains and (2) the extent to which later contact among Native inhabitants and European immigrants was a mechanism for reducing elements of precontact mobility and exchange in the postcontact era. We view indigenous responses to contact in the study area as an active, strategic process with measurable material consequences. Despite a well-documented increase in mobility among local Native groups as a result of the introduction of the horse, our study demonstrates a restriction and reduction in Historic period source use in western Wyoming. We propose that changes in obsidian source use are a reflection of ethnogenesis and development of ethnographic bands as a response to culture contact among indigenous inhabitants and with Europeans.

Resumen

Resumen

A través de un análisis de la radiografia (XRF) de casi 2.300 artefactos de obsidiana recuperados al oeste de Wyoming, el suroeste de Montana y el este de Idaho, demostramos cambios diacrónicos regionales en el acceso y la preferencia de ciertas fuentes de obsidiana para el oeste de los Estados Unidos. Nos enfocamos en dos temas: 1) las pautas a largo plazo del uso de la obsidiana que nospuede informar acerca de cuando los hablantes de Numic (Shoshone) emigraron a las Montañas Rocosas y 2) cómo el primer contacto entre los indígenas y los inmigrantes europeos sirvió para reducir la movilidad y el intercambio entre los indígenas en la época después del contacto. Vemos las respuestas de los indígenas al contacto en el área de estudio como un proceso estratégico y activo con consecuencias materiales que sí se pueden medir. A pesar del aumento de la movilidad entre los grupos locales de la gente indígena como un resultado de la introducción del caballo, nuestro estudio demuestra una restricción y reducción de la utilización de la obsidiana en la época histórica en el oeste del estado de Wyoming. Proponemos que los cambios del uso de las fuentes de la obsidiana reflejen la etnogénesis y el desarrollo de pequeños grupos étnicos como una respuesta al contacto cultural entre los indígenas y los europeos.

Type
Reports
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Barker, Alex W., Skinner, Craig E., Steven Shackley, M., Glascock, Michael D., and Daniel Rogers, J. 2002 Mesoamerican Origin for an Obsidian Scraper from the Precolumbian Southeastern United States. American Antiquity 67:103-108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barth, Fredrik 1969 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries; the Social Organization of Culture Difference. Little, Brown, and Company, Boston.Google Scholar
Baumler, Mark E. 1997 A Little Down the Trail: Prehistoric Obsidian Use on the Flying D Ranch, Northern Gallatin-Madison River Divide, Southwestern Montana. Tebiwa 26(2): 141161.Google Scholar
Beals, L., Goss, M., and Harrell, S. 2000 Diversity Indices: Shannon’s H and E. Electronic document, http://www.tiem.utk.edu/∼mbeals/shannonDI.html, accessed December 10,2008.Google Scholar
Beck, Charlotte, Taylor, Amanda K., Jones, George T., Fadem, Cynthia M., Cook, Caitlyn R., and Millward, Sara A. 2002 Rocks are Heavy: Transport Costs and Paleoarchaic Quarry Behavior in the Great Basin. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 21:481507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bettinger, Robert L., and Baumhoff, Martin A. 1982 The Numic Spread: Great Basin Cultures in Competition. American Antiquity 47:485503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohn, Allison D. 2007 Scattered Glass: Obsidian Artifact Provenance Patterns in Northwestern Wyoming. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.Google Scholar
Bramfiel, Elizabeth M. 1994 Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World: An Introduction. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox, pp. 313. Cambridge University Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, B. Robert 1981 When Did the Shoshoni Begin to Occupy Southern Idaho?: Essays on Late Prehistoric Cultural Remains from the Upper Snake and Salmon River Country. Occasional Papers of the Idaho Museum of Natural History No, 32. Idaho State University Press, Pocatello, Idaho.Google Scholar
Butler, Robert B. 1978 A Guide to Understanding Idaho Archaeology: The Upper Snake and Salmon River Country. 3rd ed. Idaho State Historic Preservation Office, Boise.Google Scholar
Cannon, Kenneth P. 1993 Paleoindian Use of Obsidian in the Greater Yellowstone Area: New Evidence of the Mobility of Early Yellowstone People. Yellowstone Science 1(4):69.Google Scholar
Cannon, Kenneth P., and Hughes, Richard E. 1993 Obsidian Source Characterization of Paleoindian Projectile Points from Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Current Research in the Pleistocene 10:5456.Google Scholar
Cannon, Kenneth P., and Hughes, Richard E. 1997 Provenance Analysis of Obsidian Paleoindian Projectile Points from Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Current Research in the Pleistocene 14:101104.Google Scholar
Clark, Jeffrey J. 2001 Tracking Prehistoric Migrations: Pueblo Settlers among the Tonto Basin Hohokam. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona No. 65. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Jeffrey J., Brent Hill, J., and Huntley, Deborah L. 2008 Communities in Crisis: Kayenta Diaspora and Salado Coalescence in Southwestern New Mexico. National Science Foundation Award #0819657. Electronic abstract http://www.checkout.org.cn/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=0819657, accessed December 10, 2008.Google Scholar
Clayton, Carmen, and Kunselman, Raymond 2002 Obsidian Source Utilization at the Trappers Point Antelope Kill Site 48SU1006. Wyoming Archaeologist 46(2):8391.Google Scholar
Cobb, Charles R. (editor) 2003 Stone Tool Traditions in the Contact Era. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.Google Scholar
Connor, Melissa, and Kunselman, Raymond 1995 Obsidian Utilization in Prehistoric Jackson Hole. The Wyoming Archaeologist 39(3–4):3952.Google Scholar
Davis, Carl M. 1975 Wickiup Cave. Plains Anthropologist 20(70):297305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Carl M., and Scott, Sarah A. 1987 Pass Creek Wickiups: Northern Shoshone Hunting Lodges in Southwestern Montana. Plains Anthropologist 32(115):8392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Leslie B., Aaberg, Stephen A., Schmitt, James G., and Johnson, Ann M. 1995 The Obsidian Cliff Plateau Prehistoric Lithic Source, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Selections from the Division of Cultural Resources No. 6, Rocky Mountain Region, National Park Service, Denver, Colorado.Google Scholar
DeBoer, Warren R. 2004 Little Bighorn on the Scioto: The Rocky Mountain Connection to Ohio Hopewell. American Antiquity 69:85107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dominick, David 1964 The Sheepeaters. The Wyoming Archaeologist 36(2): 131168.Google Scholar
Eakin, Daniel H. 2005 Evidence for Shoshonean Bighorn Sheep Trapping and Early Historic Occupation in the Absaroka Mountains of Northwest Wyoming. In University of Wyoming National Park Service Research Center 29th Annual Report 2005, pp. 7486. University of Wyoming, Laramie.Google Scholar
Eerkens, Jelmer W., Ferguson, Jeffrey R., Glascock, Michael D., Skinner, Craig E., and Waechter, Sharon A. 2007 Reduction Strategies and Geochemical Characterization of Lithic Assemblages: A Comparison of Three Case Studies from Western North America. American Antiquity 72:585597.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehrhardt, Kathleen L. 2005 European Metals in Native Hands: Rethinking Technological Change 1640–1683. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Francis, Julie E. 2010 Northwestern Plains and Rocky Mountain Rock Art Research in the Twenty-First Century. In Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers of the High Plains and Rockies, edited by Marcel Kornfeld, George C. Frison and Mary Lou Larson, pp. 499530. 3rd ed. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Francis, Julie E., and Loendorf, Lawrence L. 2002 Ancient Visions: Petroglyphs and Pictographsfrom the Wind River and Bighorn Country, Wyoming and Montana. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Francis, Julie E., Loendorf, Lawrence L., and Dorn, Ronald I. 1993 AMS Radiocarbon and Cation-Ratio Dating of Rock Art in the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming and Montana. American Antiquity 58:711737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frison, George C. 1991 Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains. 2nd ed. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Frison, George C., and Bradley, Bruce 1980 Folsom Tools and Technology of the Hanson Site, Wyoming. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Frison, George C., Reher, Charles A., and Walker, Danny N. 1990 Prehistoric Mountain Sheep Hunting in the Central Rocky Mountains of North America. In Hunters of the Recent Past, edited by Leslie B. Davis and Brian O.K. Reeves, pp. 208240. Unwin-Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Frison, George C., and Todd, Lawrence C. (editors) 1987 The Horner Site: The Type Site of the Cody Cultural Complex. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Glascock, Michael D. (editor) 2002 Geochemical Evidence for Long-Distance Exchange. Bergin and Garvey, Westport, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Graves-Brown, Paul, Jones, Sian, and Gamble, Clive (editors) 1996 Cultural Identity and Archaeology: The Construction of European Communities. Routledge, New York.Google Scholar
Greiser, Sally T. 1994 Late Prehistoric Cultures on the Montana Plains. In Plains Indians, A.D. 500–1500: The Archaeological Past of Historic Groups, edited by Karl H. Schlesier, pp. 3455. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Griffin, James Bennett, Gordus, A. A., and Wright, Gary A. 1969 Identification of the Sources of Hopewellian Obsidian in the Middle West. American Antiquity 34:114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, Andrew J., Rasker, R. A. Y., Maxwell, Bruce, Rotella, Jay J., Johnson, Jerry D., Parmenter, Andrea Wright, Langner, U. T. E., Cohen, Warren B., Lawrence, Rick L., and Kraska, Matthew P. V. 2002 Ecological Causes and Consequences of Demographic Change in the New West. BioScience 52(2):151162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatch, James W., Michels, Joseph W., Stevenson, Christopher M., Scheetz, Barry E., and Geidel, Richard A. 1990 Hopewell Obsidian Studies: Behavioral Implications of Recent Sourcing and Dating Research. American Antiquity 55:461479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heaton, John W. 2005 The Shoshone-Bannocks: Culture and Commerce at Fort Hall, 1870–1940. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.Google Scholar
Hill, Jonathan D. (editor) 1996 History, Power, and Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Americas, 1492–1992. University of IowaPress, Iowa City.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodder, Ian 1982 Symbols in Action: Ethnoarchaeological Studies of Material Culture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hoebel, E. Adamson 1938 Bands and Distribution of the Eastern Shoshone. American Anthropologist 40:410413.Google Scholar
Holmer, Richard N. 1994 In Search of Ancestral Northern Shoshone. In Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa, edited by David B. Madsen and David Rhode, pp. 179187. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Holmer, Richard N. 1997 Volcanic Glass Utilization in Eastern Idaho. Tehiwa 26:186204.Google Scholar
Hughes, Richard E. 1998 On Reliability, Validity and Scale in Obsidian Sourcing Research In Unit Issues in Archaeology: Measuring Time, Space, and Material, edited by Ann F. Ramenofsky and Anastasia Steffen, pp. 103114. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Hughes, Richard E., and Bennyhoff, James A. 1986 Early Trade. In Great Basin, edited by Warren L. d’Azevedo, pp. 238255. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 11, William C Sturtevant, general editor. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Hughes, Susan S. 2000 The Sheepeater Myth of Northwestern Wyoming. Plains Anthropologist 45(171):6383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hultkrantz, Åke 1961 The Shoshones in the Rocky Mountain Region. Annals of Wyoming 33(1): 1940.Google Scholar
Husted, Wilfred M. 2002 Archaeology in the Middle Rocky Mountains: Myopia, Misconceptions and Other Concerns. Plains Anthropologist 47(183):379386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Husted, Wilfred M., and Edgar, Robert 2002 The Archaeology of Mummy Cave, Wyoming: An Introduction to Shoshonean Prehistory. Midwest Archaeological Center and Southeast Archaeological Center Special Report No. 4. Lincoln, Nebraska.Google Scholar
Iddings, Joseph P. 1888 Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Geological 7th Annual Report 1885–86 3:249295.Google Scholar
Jones, George T., Beck, Charlotte, Jones, Eric E., and Hughes, Richard E. 2003 Lithic Source Use and Paleoarchaic Foraging Territories in the Great Basin. American Antiquity 68:538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Sian 1997 The Archaeology of Ethnicity: Constructing Identities in the Past and Present. Routledge, New York.Google Scholar
Kelly, Robert L., and Todd, Lawrence C. 1988 Coming Into the Country: Early Paleoindian Hunting and Mobility. American Antiquity 53:231244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keyser, James D. 1974 The LaMarche Game Trap: An Early Historic Game Trap in Southwestern Montana. Plains Anthropologist 19(65):173179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, Kerwin L. 1997 Frontiers of Historical Imagination: Narrating the European Conquest of Native America, 1890–1990. University of California Press, Berkeley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kornfeld, Marcel 1999 Rocky Mountain Culture Area: An Introduction. Paper presented at the 4th Biennial Rocky Mountain Anthropological Conference, Glenwood Springs, Colorado.Google Scholar
Kornfeld, Marcel, Frison, George C., and Larson, Mary Lou 2010 Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers of the High Plains and Rockies. 3rd ed. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Kornfeld, Marcel, Larson, Mary Lou, Rapson, David J., and Frison, George C. 2001 10,000 Years in the Rocky Mountains: The Helen Lookingbill Site. Journal of Field Archaeology 28:307324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kunselman, Raymond 1994 Prehistoric Obsidian Utilization in the Central Rocky Mountains: The Lookingbill Site 48FR308. The Wyoming Archaeologist 38(1): 117.Google Scholar
Kunselman, Raymond 1998 X-Ray Fluorescence Signatures of Wyoming Obsidian Sources. The Wyoming Archaeologist 42(1): 18.Google Scholar
Kunselman, Raymond, and Husted, Wilfred M. 1996 Prehistoric Obsidian Utilization in the Beartooth Mountains of Montana and Wyoming. The Wyoming Archaeologist 40(1):2734.Google Scholar
Larson, Mary Lou 1997 Housepits and Mobile Hunter-Gatherers: A Consideration of the Wyoming Evidence. Plains Anthropologist 42(161):353369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larson, Mary Lou, and Francis, Julie (editors) 1997 Rethinking the Archaic of the Northwestern Plains and Rocky Mountains. University of South Dakota Press, Vermillion.Google Scholar
Larson, Mary Lou, and Kornfeld, Marcel 1994 Betwixt and Between the Basin and the Plains: The Limits of Numic Expansion. In Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa, edited by David B. Madsen and David Rhode, pp. 200210. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent G. 2005 Indians, Missionaries, and Merchants: The Legacy of Colonial Encounters on the California Frontier. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent G., Martinez, Antoinette, and Schiff, Ann M. 1998 Daily Practice and Material Culture in Pluralistic Social Settings: An Archaeological Study of Culture Change and Persistence from Fort Ross, California. American Antiquity 63:199222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loendorf, Lawrence L., and Stone, Nancy Medaris 2006 Mountain Spirit: The Sheep Eater Indians of Yellowstone. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Lohse, Ernest S. 1994 The Southeastern Idaho Prehistoric Sequence. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 28:137160.Google Scholar
Lowie, Robert H. 1909 The Northern Shoshone. In Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 2(2), pp. 185314, New York.Google Scholar
Lyons, Patrick D., Brent Hill, J., and Clark, Jeffrey J. 2008 Demography, Agricultural Potential, and Identity among Ancient Immigrants. In The Social Construction of Communities: Agency, Structure, and Identity in the Prehispanic Southwest, edited by Mark D. Varien and James M. Potter, pp. 191213. AltaMira Press, Lanham, Maryland.Google Scholar
Lyons, William H., Glascock, Michael D., and Mehringer, Peter J. Jr. 2003 Silica from Sources to Site: Ultraviolet Fluorescence and Trace Elements Identity Cherts from Lost Dune, Southeastern Oregon, USA. Journal of Archaeological Science 30:11391159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madsen, David B 1975 Dating Paiute-Shoshone Expansion in the Great Basin. American Antiquity 40:8286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madsen, David B., and Rhode, David (editors) 1994 Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Malouf, Carling 1968 The Shoshone Migrations Northward. Archaeology in Montana 9(3): 119.Google Scholar
Mann, John W.W. 2004 Sacajawea’s People: The Lemhi Shoshones and the Salmon River Country. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Mann, Rob 2008 From Ethnogenesis to Ethnic Segmentation in the Wabash Valley: Constructing Identity and Houses in Great Lakes Fur Trade Society. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 12:319337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meskell, Lynn Theory 2001 Archaeologies of Identity. In Archaeological Theory Today, edited by Ian Hodder, pp. 187213. Polity Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Metcalf, Michael D. 1987 Contributions to the Prehistoric Chronology of the Wyoming Basin. In Perspectives on Archaeological Resource Management in the Great Plains, edited by Alan J. Osborn and Robert C. Hassler, pp. 233261. I & O Printing, Omaha, Nebraska.Google Scholar
Moore, John H 2001 Ethnogenetic Patterns in Native North America In Archaeology, Language, and History, edited by John Edward Terrell. Bergin and Garvey, Westport, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Murphy, Robert F., and Murphy, Yolanda 1986 Northern Shoshone and Bannock. In The Great Basin, edited by William C. Sturtevant and Warren L. D’Azevedo, pp. 284307. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 11, William C. Sturtevant, general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Nabokov, Peter, and Loendorf, Lawrence L. 2004 Restoring a Presence: American Indians and Yellowstone National Park. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Nassaney, Michael 2008 Identity Formation at a French Colonial Outpost in the North American Interior. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 12:297318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Old Horn, Dale D., and McCleary, Timothy P. 1995 Apsáalooke Social and Family Structure. Little Big Horn College, Crow Agency, Montana.Google Scholar
Pitblado, Bonnie L., Dehler, Carol, Neff, Hector, and Nelson, Stephen T. 2008 Pilot Study Experiments Sourcing Quartzite, Gunnison Basin, Colorado. Geoarchaeology 23:742778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plager, Sharon 2001 Patterns in the Distribution of Volcanic Glass Across Southern Idaho. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho.Google Scholar
Plew, Mark G. 2008 The Archaeology of the Snake River Plain. 2nd ed. Boise State University Department of Anthropology, Boise, Idaho.Google Scholar
Reed, William G. 1985 An Approach to the Archaeological Identification of Shoshonean Subsistence Territories in Southern Idaho. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho.Google Scholar
Reitz, Elizabeth 1990 Zooarchaeological Evidence for Subsistence at La Florida Missions. In Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands East, edited by David H. Thomas, pp. 543554. Columbian Consequences, Vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Alegría, Enrique 2008 Narratives of Conquest, Colonialism, and Cutting-Edge Technology. American Anthropologist 110:3343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Royce, Anya Peterson 1982 Ethnic Identity: Strategies of Diversity. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.Google Scholar
Russell, Osborne 1955 [1914] Journal of a Trapper. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Scheiber, Laura L. 2001 Late Prehistoric Daily Practice and Culture Contact on the North American High Plains: A Zooarchaeological Perspective. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan.Google Scholar
Scheiber, Laura L., and Finley, Judson Byrd 2010 Mountain Shoshone Technological Transitions across the Great Divide. In Across a Great Divide: Change and Continuity in Native North America, 1400–1900, edited by Laura L. Scheiber and Mark D. Mitchell, pp. 128148. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Schoen, Jamie R. 1997 As Clear as Opaque Obsidian: Source Locations in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Tebiwa 26(2):216224.Google Scholar
Secoy, Frank Raymond 1953 Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains (17th Century through Early 19th Century). Monographs of the American Ethnological Society No. 21. University of Washington Press, Seattle.Google Scholar
Shimkin, Demitri B. 1947 Wind River Shoshone Ethnogeography. Anthropological Records of the University of California 5(4):245288. Berkeley, California.Google Scholar
Shimkin, Demitri B. 1986 Eastern Shoshone. In The Great Basin, edited by William C. Sturtevant and Warren L. D’Azevedo, pp. 308335. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 11. William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2004 Social and Physical Landscapes of Contact. In North American Archaeology, edited by Timothy R. Pauketat and Diana DiPaolo Loren, pp. 273296. Blackwell Publishing, Maiden, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Smith, Craig S. 1999 Obsidian Use in Wyoming and the Concept of Curation. Plains Anthropologist 44(169):271291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Craig S., and McNees, Lance M. 1999 Facilities and Hunter-Gatherer Long-Term Land Use Patterns: An Example from Southwest Wyoming. American Antiquity 64:117136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stamm, Henry E. IV 1999 People of the Wind River: The Eastern Shoshones 1825–1900. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Steward, Julian H. 1938 Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. Bulletin No. 20, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Sturtevant, William C., and D’Azevedo, Warren L. (editors) 1986 The Great Basin. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 11. William C. Sturtevant, general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Swanson, Earl H. Jr, 1972 Birch Creek: Human Ecology in the Cool Desert of the North Rocky Mountains 9,000 B.C.-A.D. 1850. Idaho State University Press, Pocatello.Google Scholar
Thompson, Kevin W., Pastor, Jana V., and Creasman, Steven D. 1997 Wyoming Basin-Yellowstone Plateau Interaction: A Study of Obsidian Artifacts from Southwest Wyoming. Tebiwa 26(2):241254.Google Scholar
Todd, Lawrence C., and Frison, George 1986 The Colby Site: Taphonomy and Archaeology of Clovis Kill in Northwestern Wyoming. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Utley, Robert M. 2004 After Lewis and Clark. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Wishart, David J. 1979 The Fur Trade of the American West 1807–1840: A Geographical Synthesis. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Wissler, Clark 1917 The American Indian: An Introduction to the Anthropology of the New World. Douglas C. McMurtrie, New York.Google Scholar
Wobst, H. Martin 1978 The Archaeo-ethnology of Hunter-gatherers or the Tyranny of the Ethnographic Record in Archaeology. American Antiquity 43:303309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wobst, H. Martin 1999 Style in Archaeology or Archaeologists in Style. In Material Meanings: Critical Approaches to the Interpretation of Material Culture, edited by E.S. Chilton, pp. 118132. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Wood, W. Raymond, and Downer, Alan S. 1977 Notes on the Crow-Hidatsa Schism. In Trends in Middle Missouri Prehistory, edited by W. Raymond Wood-Plains Anthropologist Memoir 13. Vol. 22(78):83100.Google Scholar
Wright, Gary A. 1978 The Shoshonean Migration Problem. Plains Anthropologist 23(80): 113137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar