Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T08:09:42.491Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Evidence for Berry and Maize Processing on the Canadian Plains from Starch Grain Analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Sonia Zarrillo
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada T2N 1N4 ([email protected] and [email protected])
Brian Kooyman
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada T2N 1N4 ([email protected] and [email protected])

Abstract

The ethnographic and ethnohistoric records from the Northern and Canadian Plains indicate that a variety of plants were utilized by past peoples. These accounts provide two important insights into plant use in this region where very little archaeological evidence exists for plant utilization. First, plant processing tools are most likely to be unmodified lithic tools that may escape our recognition. Second, a variety of plants, which can be identified via starch grain analysis, were processed with these tools. This project analyzed the residues from two unmodified lithic grinding tools, identified as possible plant processing tools, for starch grains. Our results indicate that not only were a nuinber of wild plant species, such as choke cherry (Prunus virginiana), saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifolia) and likely prairie turnip (Psoralea esculenta), processed with these implements, but so too was maize (Zea mays). These results not only provide important insight with respect to identifying a tool class, plant use, and trade within our study area, but also provide an exceptional window into the use of wild plant species, an aspect of human history that is poorly understood in many regions of the world in addition to the Northern Plains.

Résumé

Résumé

Los registros etnográficos y etnohistóricos de las Planicies del norte, en Canadá y los Estados Unidos, indican que una gran variedad de plantas fueron utilizadas en el pasado por los antiguos pobladores. Estos registros proveen dos fuentes importantes de información sobre la utilización de plantas en dicha región, en donde la evidencia arqueológica disponible sobre la antigua utilización de plantas es aún limitada. En primer lugar, las herramientas para procesamiento de plantas aparentan ser herramientas líticas sin modificación cultural que pueden escapar a nuestro reconocimiento. En segundo lugar, una variedad de plantas fueron procesadas por impacto mecánico, o fricción y presión (molienda) con estas herramientas. En este proyecto se analizaron los residuos de almidón localizados en dos supuestas herramientas de molienda—sin modificación cultural—con el objetivo de determinar si los posibles restos de almidón indicaban que las herramientas habían sido utilizadas para el procesamiento de plantas. Nuestros resultados indican que no únicamente estos implementos se usaron para procesar un importante número de especies de plantas silvestres, tales como el “choke cherry” (Prunus virginiana), el “saskatoon” (Amelanchier alnifolia) y el “prairie turnip” (Psoralea esculenta), sino también plantas como el maíz (Zea mays). La identificación de las especies de plantas silvestres no es sorprendente si se considera la información que se localiza en los registros etnográficos y etnohistóricos de la región, los cuales documentan que las herramientas líticas sin modificaciones culturales fueron usadas para procesar moras y tubérculos de tales especies. La presencia de maíz tampoco es sorprendente y su hallazgo se ha interpretado como el resultado del intercambio o comercio en la región, ya que esta planta no se cultivó en la época previa al contacto europeo. El registro arqueológico muestra que el comercio interregional de tipos líticos exóticos se remonta a miles de años e indica patrones de interacción cultural de larga duración. En el periodo del contacto Europeo se ha documentado ampliamente que el maíz fue producto de intercambio por carne de bisonte entre las aldeas de horticultores de la región meridional de Missouri y las tribus nómadas de las Planicies, un patrón de intercambio que aparentemente pudo haber existido antes del contacto Europeo. El análisis de residuos de granos de almidón fue instrumental ya que identificó la función de estas herramientas líticas sin modificación cultural. Estos resultados no solo proveen importante información con respecto a la identificación de diferentes clases de herramientas. El uso de diferentes plantas y el patrón de intercambio en nuestra área de estudio, sino que además pueden considerarse un recurso excepcional para inspeccionar el uso de plantas silvestres, un aspecto de la historia humana que está deficientemente estudiada en muchas regiones del mundo, no únicamente en las Planicies del Norte.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 2006 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adair, Mary J. 1996 Woodland Complexes in the Central Great Plains. In Archaeology and Paleoecology on the Central Great Plains, edited by J. L. Hofman, pp. 101-122. Arkansas Archaeological Survey, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Ahler, Stanley A., and Swenson, Anthony W. 1993 KNRI and Upper Knife-Heart Region Pottery Analysis. In The Phase I Archaeological Research Program for the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site, Part III: Analysis of the Physical Remains, edited by T. D. Thiessen, pp. 1-171. Occasional Studies in Anthropology No. 27, Midwest Archaeological Center, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Armstrong, Steven W. 1993 Alder Complex kitchens: experimental replication of Paleoindian cooking facilities. Archaeology in Montana 34(2): 1-66.Google Scholar
Babot, M. del Pilar 2003 Starch Grain Damage as an Indicator of Food Processing. In Phytolith and Starch Research in the Australian-Pacific-Asian Regions: The State of the Art, edited by D. M. Hart and L. A. Wallis, pp. 69-81. Terra Australis; 19. Pandanus Books, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra.Google Scholar
Babot, M. del Pilar, and Appella, María C. 2003 Maize and Bone: Residues of Grinding in Northwestern Argentina. Archaeometry 45:121-132.Google Scholar
Balme, Jane, and Beck, Wendy E. 2002 Starch and Charcoal: Useful Measures of Activity Areas in Archaeological Rockshelters. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:157-166.Google Scholar
Banks, W., and Greenwood, C. T. 1975 Starch and its Components. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Barton, Huw, Torrence, Robin, and Fullagar, Richard 1998 Clues to Stone Tool Function Re-examined: Comparing Starch Grain Frequency on Used and Unused Obsidian Artifacts. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:1231-1238.Google Scholar
Bellwood, Peter 2005 The First Farmers: Origins of Agricultural Societies. Blackwell Publishing, Maiden.Google Scholar
Blake, Leonard W. 2001 Corn for the Voyageurs. In Plants from the Past, edited by L. W. Blake and H. C. Cutler, pp. 54-58. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Blakesee, Donald J. 1978 Assessing the Central Plains Tradition in Eastern Nebraska: Content and Outcome. In The Central Plains Tradition: Internal Development and External Relationships. Report 11, edited by D.J. Blakesee, pp.134-143. Office of the State Archaeologist, The University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 1998 Additional Western Lithics for Hopewell Bifaces in the Upper Mississippi River Valley. Plains Anthropologist 43:275-286.Google Scholar
Bowers, Alfred 1965 Hidatsa Social and Ceremonial Organization. Bureau of American Ethnology, Ethnology Bulletin 194, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Bryan, Liz 1991 The Buffalo People: Prehistoric Archaeology on the Canadian Plains. The University of Alberta Press, Edmonton.Google Scholar
Buchner, Anthony P. 1988 The Geochronology of the Lockport Site. Manitoba Archaeological Quarterly 12(2):27-31.Google Scholar
Calvert, Paul 1997 The Structure of Starch. Nature 389:338-339.Google Scholar
Carter, Sarah 1990 Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy. McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montreal and Kingston.Google Scholar
Cortella, A. R., and Pochettino, M. L. 1994 Starch Grain Analysis as a Microscopic Diagnostic Feature in the Identification of Plant Material. Economic Botany 48:171-181.Google Scholar
Cutler, Hugh C., and Blake, Leonard W. 2001 North American Indian Corn. In Plants from the Past, edited by L. W. Blake and H. C. Cutler, pp. 1-18. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Deck, Donalee M., and Thomas Shay, C. 1992 Preliminary Report on Plant Remains from the Lockport Site (EaLf-1). Manitoba Archaeological Journal 2(2):36-49.Google Scholar
DeMallie, Raymond J. 2001 Teton. In Plains, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, pp. 794-820. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol.13, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Dempsey, Hugh A. 2001 Sarcee. In Plains, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, pp. 629-637. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 13, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Denig, Edwin T. 1961 Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri: Sioux, Arikaras, Assiniboines, Crees, Crows. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Dyck, Ian 1983 The Prehistory of Southern Saskatchewan. In Tracking Ancient Hunters: Prehistoric Archaeology in Saskatchewan, edited by H.T. Epp and I. Dyck, pp. 63-139. Saskatchewan Archaeological Society, Regina.Google Scholar
Dyck, Ian, and Morlan, Richard E. 2001 Hunting and Gathering Tradition: Canadian Plains. In Plains, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, pp. 115-130. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 13, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Ewers, John C. Dyck, Ian, and Morlan, Richard E. 1954 The Indian Trade of the Upper Missouri before Lewis and Clark: An Interpretation. Missouri Historical Society Bulletin 10:429-426.Google Scholar
Dyck, Ian, and Morlan, Richard E. 1955 The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 159. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Dyck, Ian, and Morlan, Richard E. 1968 The Indian Trade of the Upper Missouri before Lewis and Clark. In Indian Life on the Upper Missouri, edited by J. C. Ewers, pp. 14-33. University of Okalahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Flynn, Catherine, and Leigh Syms, E. 1996 Manitoba’s First Farmers. Manitoba History 31(Spring):4-11.Google Scholar
Forbis, Richard G. 1977 Cluny: An Ancient Fortified Village in Alberta. Occasional Paper Number 4, Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary.Google Scholar
Forbis, Richard G. 1992 The Mesoindian (Archaic) Period in the Northern Plains. Revista Archeología Americana 5:27-70.Google Scholar
Fowler, Loretta, and Flannery, Regina 2001 Gros Ventre. In Plains, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, pp. 677-694. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 13, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Frison, George C. 1991 Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Frison, George C. 2001 Hunting and Gathering Tradition: Northwestern and Central Plains. In Plains, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, pp. 131-145. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 13, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Fullagar, Richard, and Field, Judith 1997 Pleistocene Seed-Grinding Implements from the Australian Arid Zone. Antiquity 71:300-307.Google Scholar
Fullagar, Richard, Loy, T., and Cox, S. 1998 Starch Grains, Sediments, Stone Tool Function: Evidence from Bitikara, Papua New Guinea. In A Closer Look: Australian Studies of Stone Tools, edited by R. Fullagar, pp. 49-60. University of Sydney Archaeological Computing Laboratory, Sydney.Google Scholar
Gregg, Michael L. 1994 Archaeological Complexes of the Northeastern Plains and Prairie-Woodland Border, A.D. 500–1500. In Plains Indians, A.D. 500–1500: The Archaeological Past of Historic Groups, edited by Karl H. Schlesier, pp. 71-95. The University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Gremillion, Kristen J. 2004 Seed Processing and the Origins of Food Production in eastern North America. American Antiquity 69:215-233.Google Scholar
Gruhn, Ruth 1969 Preliminary Report on the Muhlbach Site: A Besant Bison Trap in Central Alberta. Paper No. 4. National Museums of Canada Bulletin 232:128-156.Google Scholar
Guilbot, André, and Mercier, Christiane 1985 Starch. In The Polysaccharides, Vol. 3, edited by G. O. Aspinall, pp. 210-282. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Hart, John P., Thompson, Robert G., and Brumbach, Hetty Jo 2003 Phytolith Evidence for Early Maize (Zea Maize) in the Northern Finger Lakes Region of New York. American Antiquity 68:619-640.Google Scholar
Hancock, James F. 2004 Plant Evolution and the Origin of Crop Species. 2nd ed. CABI, Wallingford.Google Scholar
Hanson, Jeffery R. 1987 Hidatsa Culture Change, 1780–1845: A Cultural Ecological Approach. Reprints in Anthropology Volume 34, J&L Reprint, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Haslam, Michael 2004 The Decomposition of Starch Grains in Soils: Implications for Archaeological Residue Analyses. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:1715-1734.Google Scholar
Hoebel, E. Adamson 1960 The Cheyennes: Indians of the Great Plains. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.Google Scholar
Horrocks, Mark, Irwin, Geoff, Jones, Martin, and Sutton, Doug 2004 Starch Grains and Xylem Cells of Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) and Bracken (Pteridium esculentum) in Archaeological Deposits from Northern New Zealand. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:251-258.Google Scholar
Iriarte, Joseé Irene Holst, Marozzi, Oscar, Listopad, Claudia, Alonso, Eduardo, Rinderkneckt, Andrés, and Montaña, Juan 2004 Evidence for Cultivar Adoption and Emerging Complexity during the Mid-Holocene in the La Plata Basin. Nature 432:614-617.Google Scholar
Jablow, Joseph 1950 The Cheyenne in Plains Indian Trade Relations, 1795–1840. American Ethnological Society Monograph 19. American Ethnological Society, New York.Google Scholar
James, Douglas W., Preiss, Jack, and Elbein, Alan D. 1985 Biosynthesis of Polysaccharides. In The Polysaccharides, Vol. 3, edited by G. O. Aspinall, pp. 107-207. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Johnson, Ann Mary, and Johnson, Alfred E. 1998 The Plains Woodland. In Archaeology on the Great Plains, edited by W. R. Wood, pp. 201-234. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.Google Scholar
Kidd, Kenneth E. 1986 Blackfoot Ethnography. Manuscript Series 8, Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Edmonton.Google Scholar
Kooyman, Brian 1996 Cluny as Seen through Archaeology and Oral Tradition. Submitted to Siksika Nation and Parks Canada. Report on file, Parks Canada, Calgary.Google Scholar
Langer, Reinhart H. M., and Hill, G. D. 1991 Agricultural Plants. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Lentfer, Carol, Therm, Michael, and Torrence, Robin 2002 Starch Grains and Environmental Reconstruction: a Modern Test Case from West New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:687-698.Google Scholar
Lowie, Robert H. 1922 The Material Culture of the Crow Indians. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 21(3):201-270.Google Scholar
Lowie, Robert H. 1954 Indians of the Plains. McGraw-Hill, New York.Google Scholar
Loy, Thomas H. 1994 Methods in the Analysis of Starch Residues on Prehistoric Stone Tools. In Tropical Archaeobotany: Applications and New Developments, edited by J. G. Hather, pp. 86-114. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Loy, Thomas H., Spriggs, M., and Wickler, S. 1992 Direct Evidence for Human Use of Plants 28,000 Years Ago: Starch Residues on Stone Artifacts from the Northern Solomon Islands. Antiquity 66:898-912.Google Scholar
Lu, T. 2003 The Survival of Starch Residue in a Subtropical Environment. In Phytolith and Starch Research in the Australian-Pacific-Asian Regions: The State of the Art, edited by D. M. Hart and L. A. Wallis, pp. 119-126. Terra Australis; 19. Pandanus Books, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. The Australian National University, Canberra.Google Scholar
MacMasters, M. M. 1964 Microscopic Techniques for Determining Starch Granule Properties. In Methods in Carbohydrate Chemistry, edited by Roy L. Whistler, pp. 233-240. Vol. IV Starch. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Mandelbaum, David G. 1979 The Plains Cree: An Ethnographic, Historical, and Comparative Study. Canadian Plains Studies 9, Canadian Plains Research Centre, Regina.Google Scholar
Maries, Robin J., Clavelle, Christina, Monteleone, Leslie, Tays, Natalie, and Burns, Donna 2000 Aboriginal Plant Use in Canada’s Northwest Boreal Forest. UBC Press, Vancouver.Google Scholar
Milloy, John S. 1988 The Plains Cree: Trade, Diplomacy, and War, 1790–1870. The University of Manitoba Press, Winnipeg.Google Scholar
Moodie, D. W., and Kaye, Barry 1969 The Northern Limit of Indian Agriculture in North America. Geographical Review 59:513-529.Google Scholar
Moss, Ezra Henry 1994 Flora of Alberta: A Manual of Flowering Plants, Conifers, Ferns and Fern Allies Found Growing without Cultivation in the Province of Alberta, Canada. 2nd ed. revised by John G. Packer. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.Google Scholar
Moss, G. E. 1976 The Microscopy of Starch. In Examination and Analysis of Starch and Starch Products, edited by J. A. Radley, pp. 1-32. Applied Science, Essex.Google Scholar
Mulloy, William 1976 The Hagen Site: A Prehistoric Village on the Lower Yellowstone. Reprints in Anthropology Volume 4. J & L Reprint, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Nicholson, Bev A. 1990 Ceramic Affiliations and the Case for Incipient Horticulture in Southwestern Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 14:33-59.Google Scholar
Parr, J. F. 2002 The Identification of Xanthorrhoea Resins by Starch Morphology: Prospects for Archaeological and Taxonomic Applications. Economic Botany 53:260-270.Google Scholar
Peacock, Sandra Leslie 1993 Piikáni Ethnobotany: Traditional Plant Knowledge of the Piikáni Peoples of the Northwestern Plains. Master’s thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary, National Library of Canada, Ottawa.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M. 2003 Integrating Biological Data: Phytoliths and Starch Grains, Health and Diet, at Real Alto, Ecuador. In Phytolith and Starch Research in the Australian-Pacific Regions: The State of the Art, edited by D. M. Hart and L. A. Wallis, pp. 187-200. Terra Australis; 19. Pandanus Books, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M., Chandler-Ezell, Karol, and Zeidler, James A. 2004 Maize in Ancient Ecuador: Results of Residue Analysis of Stone Tools from the Real Alto Site. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:423-442.Google Scholar
Perry, Linda 2001 Prehispanic Subsistence in the Middle Orinoco Basin: Starch Analyses Yield New Evidence. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Perry, Linda 2002 Starch Granule Size and the Domestication of Manioc (Manihot esculenta) and Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas). Economic Botany 56:335-349.Google Scholar
Perry, Linda 2004 Starch Analyses Reveal the Relationship between Tool Type and Function: An Example from the Orinoco Valley of Venezuela. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:1069-1081.Google Scholar
Piperno, Dolores R., and Holst, Irene 1998 The Presence of Starch Grains on Prehistoric Stone Tools from the Humid Neotropics: Indications of Early Tuber Use and Agriculture in Panama. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:765-776.Google Scholar
Piperno, Dolores R., Ranere, Anothy J., Holst, Irene, and Hansell, Patricia 2000 Starch Grains Reveal Early Root Crop Horticulture in the Panamanian Tropical Forest. Nature 407:894-897.Google Scholar
Piperno, Dolores R., Weiss, Ehud, Holst, Irene, and Nadel, Dani 2004 Processing of Wild Cereal Grains in the Upper Paleolithic Revealed by Starch Grain Analysis. Nature 430:670-673.Google Scholar
Purseglove, J. W. 1972 Tropical Crops: Monocotyledons. Vol. 1. Longman Group, London.Google Scholar
Radley, Jack Augustus 1976 Physical Methods of Characterising Starch. In Examination and Analysis of Starch and Starch Products, edited by J. A. Radley, pp. 91-131. Applied Science, London.Google Scholar
Radwan, Mohamed A., and Stocking, C. R. 1957 The Isolation and Characterization of Sunflower Leaf Starch. American Journal of Botany 44:682-686.Google Scholar
Ramsay, Charles, and Ramsay, Allyson 2001 Montreux Partnership Lands HRIA for Portions of NE 1/4 9-24-2-W5M and HRM1 for EgPn-612, Calgary, Alberta Final Report. Stantec Consulting Limited. Submitted to the Montreaux Partnership, HRIA Permit# 2000-121 and HRIA Permit# 2001-180. Report on file, Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Edmonton.Google Scholar
Reeves, Brian, Bourges, Claire, Olsen, Carmen, and Dow, Amanda 2001 City of Calgary Native Archaeological Site Inventory. Vol. 1. Lifeways of Canada Limited. Submitted to the City of Calgary, Alberta. Copy on file (CRM 122 V2), Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Edmonton.Google Scholar
Reichert, Edward Tyson 1913 The Differentiation and Specificity of Starches in Relation to Genera, Species, etc. 2 vols. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Riley, Thomas J., Walz, Gregort R., Bareis, Charles C., Fortier, Andrew C., and Parker, Kathryn E. 1994 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Dates Confirm Early Zea mays in the Mississippi River Valley. American Antiquity 59:490-498.Google Scholar
Russell, Dale R. 1991 Eighteenth-century Western Cree and their Neighbours. Archaeological Survey of Canada Mercury Series Paper No. 143. Canadian Museum of Civilization, Hull.Google Scholar
Schneider, Fred 2002 Prehistoric Horticulture in the Northeastern Plains. Plains Anthropologist 47:33-50.Google Scholar
Seidemann, Johannes 1966 Stärke-Atlas: Grundlagen der Stärke-Mikroscopie und Beschreibung der Wichtigsten Stärkearten. Paul Parey, Berlin.Google Scholar
Siegfried, Evelyn Vicky 1995 Ethnobotany of the Northern Cree of Wabasca/Desmarais. Master’s thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary. National Library of Canada, Ottawa.Google Scholar
Siegfried, Evelyn Vicky 2003 Paleoethnobotany of the Northern Plains. The Tuscany Archaeological Site (EgPn-377), Calgary. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Calgary, Calgary. National Library of Canada, Ottawa.Google Scholar
Simons, Jeannette A. 2001 Compliance, Science, and Research: Archaeology in the Mariana Islands. Cultural Resource Management 24(1):25-26.Google Scholar
Smith, Craig S. 1988 Seeds, Weeds, and Prehistoric Hunters and Gatherers: The Plant Macrofossil Evidence From Southwest Wyoming. Plains Anthropologist 33:141ä158.Google Scholar
Smyth, David 1992 Missed Opportunity: John Milloy’s The Plains Cree. Prairie Forum 17:337-354.Google Scholar
Stoltman, James B., and Hughes, Richard E. 2004 Obsidian in Early Woodland Contexts in the Upper Mississippi Valley. American Antiquity 69:751-759.Google Scholar
Tester, Richard F., and Karkalas, John 2001 The Effects of Environmental Conditions on the Structural Features and Physico-chemical Properties of Starches. Starch/Stärke 53:513-519.Google Scholar
Therin, Michael, Torrence, Robin, and Fullagar, Richard 1999 Starch in Sediments: a New Approach to the Study of Subsistence and Land Use in Papua New Guinea. In The Prehistory of Food: Appetites for Change, edited by C. Gosden and J. Hather, pp. 438-462. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Tolman, Shayne M. 2003 DhPg-8: From Mammoths to Machinery: An Overview of 11,000 Years along the St. Mary River. Master’s thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary. Library of Canada, Ottawa.Google Scholar
Torrence, Robin, Wright, Richard, and Conway, Rebecca 2004 Identification of Starch Granules using Image Analysis and Multivariate Techniques. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:519-532.Google Scholar
Turney-High, Harry Holbert 1974 Ethnography of the Kutenai. Kraus Reprint, Millwood.Google Scholar
Ugent, Donald, Pozorski, Shelia, and Pozorski, Thomas 1984 New Evidence for Ancient Cultivation of Canna edulis in Peru. Economic Botany 38:417-432.Google Scholar
Vance, Robert E. 1992 Paleobotanical Analyses of Archaeological Features in the Oldman River Valley. Submitted to the Archaeological Survey of Alberta. Report on file, Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Edmonton.Google Scholar
Vickers, J. Roderick 1986 Alberta Plains Prehistory: A Review. Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 27. Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Edmonton.Google Scholar
Vickers, J. Roderick 1994 Cultures of the northwestern plains: from the boreal forest to Milk River. In Plains Indians, A.D. 500–1500: The Archaeological Past of Historic Groups, edited by Karl H. Schlesier, pp. 3-33. The University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Voget, Fred W. 2001 Crow. In Plains, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, pp. 695-717. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 13, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Walde, Dale Allen 2003 The Mortlach Phase. Occasional Papers of the Archaeological Society of Alberta Number 2. Archaeological Society of Alberta, Calgary.Google Scholar
Walde, Dale, and Meyer, David 2003 Pre-contact Pottery in Alberta: An Overview. In Archaeology in Alberta: A View from the New Millennium, edited by Jack W. Brink and John F. Dormaar, pp. 132-152. The Archaeological Society of Alberta, Medicine Hat.Google Scholar
Walde, Dale, Meyer, David, and Unfreed, Wendy 1995 The Late Period on the Canadian and Adjacent Plains. Revista de Arqueología Americana 9:7-66.Google Scholar
Will, George F., and Hyde, George E. 1968 Corn Among the Indians of the Upper Missouri. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Wilson, Gilbert Livingston 1977 Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians: An Indian Interpretation. Reprints in Anthropology Volume 5, J. & L. Reprint, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Winham, Peter R., and Calabrese, F. A. 1998 The Middle Missouri Traditioa. In Archaeology on the Great Plains, edited by W. R. Wood, pp. 269-307. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence.Google Scholar
Wissler, Clark 1986 Material Culture of the Blackfoot Indians. In A Blackfoot Source Book: Papers by Clark Wissler, edited by D. H. Thomas, pp. 1-175. Garland, New York.Google Scholar
Wood, W. Raymond 1980 Plains Trade in Prehistoric and Protohistoric Intertribal Relations. In Anthropology on the Great Plains, edited by W.R. Wood and M. Liberty, pp. 98-109. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Wood, W. Raymond, and Thiessen, Thomas D. (editors) 1985 Early Fur Trade on the Northern Plains: Canadian Traders among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians, 1738–1818. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Wormington, H. Maria, and Forbis, Richard G. 1965 An Introduction to the Archaeology of Alberta, Canada. Denver Museum of Natural History, Denver.Google Scholar
Wright, James V. 1995 A History of the Native People of Canada, Volume I (10,000–1,000 B.C.). Mercury Series Archaeological Survey of Canada Paper 152. Canadian Museum of Civilization, Hull.Google Scholar
Wright, James V. 1999 A History of the Native People of Canada, Volume II (1,000 B.C.- A.D. 500). Mercury Series Archaeological Survey of Canada Paper 152. Canadian Museum of Civilization, Hull.Google Scholar
Zarrillo, Sonia 2004a A Preliminary Analysis of Carbonized Residues for Starch Grains on Ceramics from the Loma Alta Site, Ecuador. Unpublished B.Sc. Honours Thesis, Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary.Google Scholar
Zarrillo, Sonia 2004b Method for Extracting Starch Grains from Sediments. Manuscript on file, Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta.Google Scholar