Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T17:10:24.333Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

CROPPING IN AN AGE OF CAPTIVE TAKING: EXPLORING EVIDENCE FOR UNCERTAINTY AND FOOD INSECURITY IN THE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY NORTH CAROLINA PIEDMONT

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 January 2018

Mallory A. Melton
Mallory A. Melton*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of California, Humanities and Social Sciences Building 2001, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Engagement in sustained encounters with colonial actors had long-lasting demographic, social, and political consequences for Native American inhabitants of Southeastern North America during the colonial period (AD 1670–1783). Less clear is whether Native peoples who did not regularly trade with colonists also felt the destabilization experienced by more closely affiliated groups. This article explores Native lifeways in the seventeenth-century Eno River valley of the North Carolina Piedmont, a context for which archaeological and ethnohistoric evidence have produced divergent narratives. While extant archaeological findings suggest that daily life from 1650 to 1680 continued virtually unchanged from the preceding Late Woodland period, ethnohistoric accounts indicate that this area was victimized by Native slavers who abducted countless women and children. Seeking to reconcile these narratives, I conducted a diachronic analysis of botanical remains and architecture. Archaeobotanical data reveal that Jenrette site (AD 1650–1680) occupants adopted foodways that differed significantly from those of their Late Woodland predecessors, while architectural evidence indicates a brief village occupation. I argue that Eno River valley inhabitants introduced risk-averse subsistence practices that would have aided in coping with the threat and consequences of slave raiding and that these practices occurred within a social climate of fear and uncertainty that is documented ethnohistorically.

Encuentros sostenidos con actores coloniales tuvieron consecuencias demográficas, sociales y políticas de larga duración para los grupos indígenas del sureste de Norteamérica durante el periodo colonial (1670–1783 dC). Resulta menos claro si los nativos que no comerciaban de manera regular con los colonos también percibieron la misma desestabilización experimentada por grupos con asociaciones más cercanas. Este artículo explora los modos de vida de los nativos durante el siglo XVII en el valle del Río Eno, en el piedemonte de Carolina del Norte, región para la cual la evidencia arqueológica y etnohistórica han producido narrativas divergentes. Mientras que hallazgos arqueológicos previos sugieren que la vida cotidiana en 1650–1680 continuó virtualmente inalterada desde el anterior periodo Silvícola tardío, algunos relatos etnohistóricos indican que esta área fue sometida por mercaderes de esclavos nativos quienes abdujeron un sinnúmero de mujeres y niños. Buscando reconciliar estas narrativas, se llevó a cabo un análisis diacrónico de restos botánicos y arquitectura. Los datos arqueobotánicos revelan que los habitantes del sitio de Jenrette (1650–1680 dC) adoptaron una alimentación significativamente distinta a la de sus predecesores del Silvícola tardío, mientras que la evidencia arquitectónica indica que la ocupación de la aldea fue breve. Se argumenta que los habitantes del valle del Río Eno introdujeron prácticas de subsistencia aversas al riesgo que los habrían ayudado a enfrentarse a la amenaza y las consecuencias de las incursiones esclavistas, y que estas prácticas se presentarían dentro del clima social de temor e incertidumbre que fue documentado etnohistóricamente.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 83 , Issue 2 , April 2018 , pp. 204 - 223
Copyright
Copyright © 2018 by the Society for American Archaeology 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adler, Michael A. 1996 Land Tenure, Archaeology, and the Ancestral Pueblo Social Landscape. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 15:337–371.Google Scholar
Beck, Robin 2009 Catawba Coalescence and the Shattering of the Carolina Piedmont. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Ethridge, Robbie and Shuck-Hall, Sheri M., pp. 115–141. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, Robin 2013 Chiefdoms, Collapse, and Coalescence in the Early American South. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, Robin A., Rodning, Christopher B., and Moore, David G. (editors) 2016 Fort San Juan and the Limits of Empire: Colonialism and Household Practice at the Berry Site. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bentley, Jeffery W. 1987 Economic and Ecological Approaches to Land Fragmentation: In Defense of a Much-Maligned Phenomenon. Annual Review of Anthropology 16: 31–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blew, Joseph O., and Kulp, John W. 1964 Service Records on Treated and Untreated Fence Posts. US Forest Service Research Note FPL-068. Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Boudreaux, Edmond A. 2007 Archaeology of Town Creek. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Bowne, Eric E. 2005 The Westo Indians: Slave Traders of the Early Colonial South. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Bull, Stephen 2000 Letter of Stephen Bull to Lord Ashley, September 12, 1670. In The Shaftesbury Papers, compiled by the South Carolina Historical Society, pp. 192–196. Tempus Publishing, Charleston, South Carolina.Google Scholar
Cancian, Frank 1980 Risk and Uncertainty in Agricultural Decision Making. In Agricultural Decision Making: Anthropological Contributions to Rural Development, edited by Bartlett, Peggy, pp. 161–176. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Carter, Michael R. 1997 Environment, Technology, and the Social Articulation of Risk in West African Agriculture. Economic Development and Cultural Change 45:557–590.Google Scholar
Cook, Edward R., Lall, U., Woodhouse, C., and Meko, D. M. 2008 North American Drought Atlas, Version 2a. Electronic document, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo-search/study/6319, accessed July 15, 2017.Google Scholar
Cumming, William P. 1958 The Discoveries of John Lederer. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.Google Scholar
Davis, R. P. Stephen Jr. 2002 The Cultural Landscape of the North Carolina Piedmont at Contact. In The Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, 1540–1760, edited by Ethridge, Robbie and Hudson, Charles, pp. 135–154. University Press of Mississippi, Jackson.Google Scholar
Davis, R. P. Stephen Jr., and Ward, H. Trawick 1991 The Evolution of Siouan Communities in Piedmont North Carolina. Southeastern Archaeology 10:40–53.Google Scholar
Deagan, Kathleen A. 1973 Mestizaje in Colonial St. Augustine. Ethnohistory 20:55–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dillehay, Tom D., and Kolata, Alan L. 2004 Long-Term Human Response to Uncertain Environmental Conditions in the Andes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101: 4325–4330.Google Scholar
Eastman, Jane M. 2001 Life Courses and Gender among Late Prehistoric Siouan Communities. In Archaeological Studies of Gender in the Southeastern United States, edited by Eastman, Jane M. and Rodning, Christopher B., pp. 57–76. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Ethridge, Robbie 2006 Creating the Shatter Zone: Indian Slave Traders and the Collapse of the Southeastern Chiefdoms. In Light on the Path: The Anthropology and History of the Southeastern Indians, edited by Pluckhahn, Thomas J. and Ethridge, Robbie, pp. 207–218. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Ethridge, Robbie 2009 Introduction: Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Ethridge, Robbie and Shuck-Hall, Sheri M., pp. 1–62. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Ethridge, Robbie 2010 From Chicaza to Chickasaw: The European Invasion and the Transformation of the Mississippian World, 1540–1715. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 2003 Trade Reforms and Food Security: Conceptualizing the Linkages. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome.Google Scholar
Gallay, Alan 2002 The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Galt, Anthony H. 1976 Exploring the Cultural Ecology of Field Fragmentation and Scattering on the Island of Pantelleria, Italy. Journal of Anthropological Research 35: 93–108.Google Scholar
Godfray, H. Charles, John, J. Beddington, R., Crude, Ian R., Haddad, Lawrence, Lawrence, David, Muir, James F., Pretty, Jules, Robinson, Sherman, Thomas, Sandy M., and Toulmin, Camilla 2010 Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion People. Science 327:812–818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goland, Carol 1993 Agricultural Risk Management through Diversity: Field Scattering in Cuyo Cuyo, Peru. Culture and Agriculture 13 (45–46):8–13.Google Scholar
Gremillion, Kristen J. 1989 Late Prehistoric and Historic Period Paleoethnobotany of the North Carolina Piedmont. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Gremillion, Kristen J. 1993a Botanical Remains from the Jenrette Site. In Indian Communities on the North Carolina Piedmont, AD 1000–1700, edited by Ward, H. Trawick and Davis, R. P. Stephen Jr., pp. 373–382. Research Laboratories of Anthropology Monograph No. 2. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Gremillion, Kristen J. 1993b Adoption of Old World Crops and Processes of Cultural Change in the Historic Southeast. Southeastern Archaeology 12:15–20.Google Scholar
Haggis, Donald C. 2007 Stylistic Diversity and Diacritical Feasting at Protopalatial Petras: A Preliminary Analysis of the Lakkos Deposit. American Journal of Archaeology 111:715–775.Google Scholar
Halsted, Paul, and O'Shea, John (editors) 1989 Bad Year Economics: Cultural Responses to Risk and Uncertainty. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hardaker, J. Brian, Lien, Gudbrand, Anderson, Jock R., and Huirne, Ruud B. M. 2015 Coping with Risk in Agriculture: Applied Decision Analysis. 3rd ed. CABI, Boston.Google Scholar
Hudson, Charles 2005 The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Explorations of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566–1568. 2nd ed. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Jennings, Matthew H. 2009 Violence in a Shattered World. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone, edited by Ethridge, Robbie and Shuck-Hall, Sheri M., pp. 272–294. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jordan, Kurt A. 2013 Incorporation and Colonization: Postcolumbian Iroquois Satellite Communities and Processes of Indigenous Autonomy. American Anthropologist 115:29–43.Google Scholar
Kassabaum, Megan C. 2014 Feasting and Communal Ritual in the Lower Mississippi Valley, AD 700–1000. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Kelton, Paul 2007 Epidemics and Enslavement. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Kennett, Douglas J., and Marwan, Norbert 2015 Climatic Volatility, Agricultural Uncertainty, and the Formation, Consolidation and Breakdown of Preindustrial Agrarian States. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 373 (2055):1–17.Google Scholar
Kent, Susan 1992 Studying Variability in the Archaeological Record: An Ethnoarchaeological Model for Distinguishing Mobility Patterns. American Antiquity 57:635–660.Google Scholar
Keynes, John Maynard 1921 A Treatise on Probability. Macmillan, London.Google Scholar
Killion, Thomas W. 1990 Cultivation Intensity and Residential Site Structure: An Ethnoarchaeological Examination of Peasant Agriculture in the Sierra de los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 1:191–215.Google Scholar
Killion, Thomas W. 1992 Residential Ethnoarchaeology and Ancient Site Structure: Contemporary Farming and Prehistoric Settlement Agriculture at Matacapan, Veracruz, Mexico. In Gardens of Prehistory: The Archaeology of Settlement Agriculture in Greater Mesoamerica, edited by Killion, Thomas W., pp. 119–149. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Knight, Frank H. 1921 Risk, Uncertainty and Profit. Houghton Mifflin, New York.Google Scholar
Kowalewski, Stephen A. 2006 Coalescent Societies. In Light on the Path: The Anthropology and History of the Southeastern Indians, edited by Pluckhahn, Thomas J. and Ethridge, Robbie, pp. 94–122. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Larsen, Clark Spencer (editor) 1990 The Archaeology of Mission Santa Catalina de Guale: 2. Biocultural Interpretations of a Population in Transition. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History No. 68. American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Larson, Daniel O., Johnson, John R., and Michaelsen, Joel C. 1994 Missionization among the Coastal Chumash of Central California: A Study of Risk Minimization Strategies. American Anthropologist 96:263–299.Google Scholar
Lefler, Hugh T. (editor) 1967 A New Voyage to Carolina, by Lawson, John. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent 2005 The Archaeology of Colonization: California in Cross-Cultural Perspective. In The Archaeology of Colonial Encounters: Comparative Perspectives, edited by Stein, Gill, pp. 207–235. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Logan, Amanda L. 2016a “Why Can't People Feed Themselves?”: Archaeology as Alternative Archive of Food Security in Banda, Ghana. American Anthropologist 118:508–524.Google Scholar
Logan, Amanda L. 2016b An Archaeology of Food Security in Banda, Ghana. In Archaeology of the Human Experience, edited by Hegmon, Michelle, pp. 106–119. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association No. 27. American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Luce, Robert Dunca, and Raiffa, Howard 1957 Games and Decisions: Introduction and Critical Survey. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
McCloskey, Donald N. 1976 English Open Fields as Behavior towards Risk. Research in Economic History 1:124–170.Google Scholar
McCloskey, Donald N. 1991 The Prudent Peasant: New Findings on Open Fields. Journal of Economic History 51:343–355.Google Scholar
Marcoux, Jon Bernard 2010 Pox, Empire, Shackles, and Hides: The Townsend Site, 1670–1715. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Marston, John M. 2011 Archaeological Markers of Agricultural Risk Management. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30:190–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melton, Mallory A. 2014 Foodways in Transition: Plant Use and Community at the Wall (31Or11) and Jenrette (31Or231a) Sites, Hillsborough, North Carolina. Undergraduate honors thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Meyers, Maureen 2009 From Refugees to Slave Traders: The Transformation of the Westo Indians. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Ethridge, Robbie and Shuck-Hall, Sheri M., pp. 81–103. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Mrozowski, Stephen A. 2006 Environments of History: Biological Dimensions of Historical Archaeology. In Historical Archaeology, edited by Hall, Martin and Silliman, Stephen W., pp. 23–41. Blackwell, Malden, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Nunn, Nathan, and Qian, Nancy 2010 The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas. Journal of Economic Perspectives 24:163–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Shea, John 1989 The Role of Wild Resources in Small-Scale Agricultural Systems: Tales from the Lakes and Plains. In Bad Year Economics: Cultural Responses to Risk and Uncertainty, edited by Halstead, Paul and O'Shea, John, pp. 57–67. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R. 2003 Resettled Farmers and the Making of a Mississippian Polity. American Antiquity 68:39–66.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R., Kelly, Lucretia S., Fritz, Gayle J., Lopinot, Neal H., Elias, Scott, and Hargrave, Eve 2002 The Residues of Feasting and Public Ritual at Early Cahokia. American Antiquity 67:257–279.Google Scholar
Peterson, Lee Allen 1977 A Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants: Eastern and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin, New York.Google Scholar
Petherick, Gary L. 1987 Architecture and Features at the Fredricks, Wall, and Mitchum Sites. In The Siouan Project: Seasons I and II, edited by Dickens, Roy S. Jr., Ward, H. Trawick, and Davis, R. P. Stephen Jr., pp. 29–80. Research Laboratories of Anthropology Monograph No. 1. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Reinberger, Katherine 2014 Diet and Health in the North Carolina Piedmont. Undergraduate honors thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Reitz, Elizabeth J. 1992 The Spanish Colonial Experience and Domestic Animals. Historical Archaeology 26:84–91.Google Scholar
Reitz, Elizabeth J., and Scarry, C. Margaret 1985 Reconstructing Historic Subsistence with an Example from Sixteenth-Century Spanish Florida. Special Publication Series No. 3, Donna J. Seifert, series editor, Society for Historical Archaeology, Glassboro, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Rice, James D. 2009 Nature and History in the Potomac Country: From Hunter-Gatherers to the Age of Jefferson. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland.Google Scholar
Rights, Douglas L. 1931 The Trading Path to the Indians. North Carolina Historical Review 8:403–426.Google Scholar
Rudes, Blair A. 2004 Place Names of Cofitachequi. Anthropological Linguistics 46:359–426.Google Scholar
Saunders, Rebecca 1998 Forced Relocation, Power Relations, and Culture Contact in the Missions of La Florida. In Studies in Culture Contact: Interaction, Culture Change, and Archaeology, edited by Cusick, James G., pp. 402–429. Center for Archaeological Investigations Occasional Paper No. 25. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Scarry, C. Margaret 2003 Patterns of Wild Plant Utilization in the Prehistoric Eastern Woodlands. In People and Plants in Ancient Eastern North America, edited by Minnis, Paul E., pp. 50–104. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Scarry, C. Margaret, and Reitz, Elizabeth J. 2005 Changes in Foodways at the Parkin Site, Arkansas. Southeastern Archaeology 24:107–120.Google Scholar
Shefveland, Kristalyn Marie 2016 Anglo-Native Virginia: Trade, Conversion, and Indian Slavery in the Old Dominion, 1646–1722. University of Georgia Press, Athens.Google Scholar
Silliman, Stephen W. 2005 Culture Contact or Colonialism? Challenges in the Archaeology of Native North America. American Antiquity 70:55–74.Google Scholar
Simoons, Frederick J. 1994 Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Steele, Louise 2004 A Goodly Feast . . . A Cup of Mellow Wine: Feasting in Bronze Age Cyprus. Hesperia 73:281–300.Google Scholar
Stirling, Andy 2003 Risk, Uncertainty and Precaution: Some Instrumental Implications from the Social Sciences. In Negotiating Environmental Change: New Perspectives from Social Science, edited by Berkhout, Frans, Leach, Melissa, and Scoones, Ian, pp. 33–76. Edward Elgar, Northampton, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Tucker, Bram 2006 A Future Discounting Explanation for the Persistence of a Mixed Foraging-Horticulture Strategy among the Mikea of Madagascar. In Behavioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture, edited by Kennett, Douglas J. and Winterhalder, Bruce, pp. 22–40. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M. 2005 Field Cultivation and Tree Management in Tropical Agriculture: A View from Gulf Coastal Mexico. World Archaeology 37:275–289.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M. 2006 Farming, Hunting, and Fishing in the Olmec World. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M., Marcoux, Jon B., and Hollenbach, Kandace D. 2013 Farming and Foraging at the Crossroads: The Consequences of Cherokee and European Interaction through the Late Eighteenth Century. American Antiquity 78:68–88.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M., Scarry, C. Margaret, and Eastman, Jane M. 2007 Menus for Families and Feasts: Household and Community Consumption of Plants at Upper Saratown, North Carolina. In The Archaeology of Food and Identity, edited by Twiss, Katheryn C., pp. 16–49. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
VanDerwarker, Amber M., and Wilson, Gregory D. 2016 War, Food, and Structural Violence in the Mississippian Central Illinois River Valley. In The Archaeology of Food and Warfare: Food Insecurity in Prehistory, edited by VanDerwarker, Amber M. and Wilson, Gregory D., pp. 75–106. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2005 From Casta to Californio: Social Identity and the Archaeology of Culture Contact. American Anthropologist 107:461–474.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2008 Domesticating Imperialism: Sexual Politics and the Archaeology of Empire. American Anthropologist 110:191–203.Google Scholar
Ward, H. Trawick, and Stephen Davis, R. P. Jr. 1991 The Impact of Old World Diseases on the Native Inhabitants of the North Carolina Piedmont. Archaeology of Eastern North America 19:171–181.Google Scholar
Ward, H. Trawick, and Stephen Davis, R. P. Jr. 1993 Indian Communities on the North Carolina Piedmont, AD 1000 to 1700. Research Laboratories of Anthropology Monograph No. 2. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Ward, H. Trawick, and Stephen Davis, R. P. Jr. 1999 Time before History: The Archaeology of North Carolina. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Ward, H. Trawick, and Stephen Davis, R. P. Jr. 2001 Tribes and Traders on the North Carolina Piedmont, AD 1000–1710. In Societies in Eclipse: Archaeology of the Eastern Woodlands Indians, AD 1400–1700, edited by Browse, David S., Cowan, C. Wesley, and Mainfort, Robert C. Jr., pp. 125–141. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Warrick, Gary A. 2003 European Infectious Disease and Depopulation of the Wendat-Tionontate (Huron-Petun). World Archaeology 35:258–275.Google Scholar
Waselkov, Gregory A. 1989 Seventeenth-Century Trade in the Colonial Southeast. Southeastern Archaeology 8:117–133.Google Scholar
Waselkov, Gregory A. 1997 Changing Strategies of Indian Field Location in the Early Historic Southeast. In People, Plants, and Landscapes: Studies in Paleoethnobotany, edited by Gremillion, Kristen J., pp. 179–194. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Welch, Paul D., and Scarry, C. Margaret 1995 Status-Related Variation in Foodways in the Moundville Chiefdom. American Antiquity 60:397–419.Google Scholar
Wilson, Homes Hogue 1987 Human Skeletal Remains from the Wall and Fredricks Sites. In The Siouan Project: Seasons I and II, edited by Dickens, Roy S. Jr., Ward, H. Trawick, and Stephen Davis, R. P. Jr., pp. 81–110. Research Laboratories of Anthropology Monograph No. 1. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, Bruce 1986 Diet Choice, Risk, and Food Sharing in a Stochastic Environment. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 5:369–392.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, Bruce 1990 Open Field, Common Pot: Harvest Variability and Risk Avoidance in Agricultural and Foraging Societies. In Risk and Uncertainty in Tribal and Peasant Economies, edited by Cashdan, Elizabeth, pp. 67–88. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, Bruce, Lu, Flora, and Tucker, Bram 1999 Risk-Sensitive Adaptive Tactics: Models and Evidence from Subsistence Studies in Biology and Anthropology. Journal of Archaeological Research 7: 301–348.Google Scholar
Wood, Abraham 1912 Letter of Abraham Wood to John Richards, August 22, 1674. In The First Explorations of the Trans-Allegheny Region by the Virginians, 1650–1674, edited by Alvord, Clarence W. and Bidgood, Lee, pp. 210–226. Arthur H. Clark, Cleveland, Ohio.Google Scholar