Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T05:46:32.742Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Collapse of Crucial Resources and Culture Change: A Model for the Woodland to Oneota Transformation in the Upper Midwest

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

James L. Theler  and
Robert F. Boszhardt
James L. Theler
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology and Archaeology, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI 54601
Robert F. Boszhardt
Affiliation:
Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI 54601
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Driftless Area of the Upper Midwestern United States offers a case study for the transition from hunter-gatherer (Late Woodland Effigy Mound) to agricultural (Oneota) societies between ca. A.D. 950 and 1150, a period that coincided with northward expansion of Middle Mississippian cultures from the American Bottom. Previous studies have not adequately explained the regional disappearance of Effigy Mound cultures, the appearance of Oneota cultures, or the cultural changes that occurred during this period. Our analysis considers ecological (deer and firewood) and cultural (population packing, community organization, hunting technology, and warfare) factors to develop a testable model applicable to broader regions. We propose that increasing Late Woodland populations reached the region's “packing threshold,” disrupting a flexible seasonal round based on residential mobility and triggering shortages of two essential resources, white-tailed deer and firewood, which in turn led Late Woodland groups to abandon vast portions of the Driftless Area. The intrusion of Middle Mississippian peoples from the south created additional disruption and conflict. Remnant Woodland and Mississippian peoples amalgamated briefly in the region's first villages, which were palisaded. After A.D. 1150, Oneota cultures emerged, reoccupying specific localities in clustered settlements.

Résumé

Résumé

El Area Driftless (una zona no cubierta por los glaciares) de la parte central del Norte de los Estados Unidos ofrece un ejemplo de la transición de una sociedad cazadora-recolectora (Woodland Effigy Mound Tardío) a una sociedad agrícola (Oneota) entre 1050 y 1150 d.C, un período que coincidió con la expansión hacia el Norte de culturas Mississippian Medio del Sur Americano. Estudios anteriores no han explicado adecuadamente la desaparición regional de las culturas Effigy Mound, la aparición de las culturas Oneota, o los cambios culturales que ocurrieron durante este período. Nuestro análisis considera factores ecológicos (venado y leña) y culturales (densidad de población, organización de comunidad, tecnología de caza, y guerra) para desarrollar un modelo que se puede probar y que se puede aplicar a regiones más extensas. Proponemos que las poblaciones Woodland Tardío aumentaron hasta que llenaron la región, rompiendo el patrón flexible de movilidad estacional y causando escaseases de dos recursos esenciales, venado de cola blanca y leña. Esta situación obligó a los grupos Woodland Tardío a abandonar vastas extensiones del Area Driftless. La intrusión de grupos Mississippian del Sur creó trastornos y conflictos adicionales. Grupos remanentes Woodland y Mississippian se fusionaron brevemente en las primeras aldeas de la región, que fueron empalizadas. Después del año 1150 d.C. emergieron las culturas Oneota, reocupando localidades específicas en asentamientos agrupados.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 71 , Issue 3 , July 2006 , pp. 433 - 472
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 2006 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Alex, Lynn M. 2000 Iowa’s Archaeological Past. University of IowaPress, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Anderson, Adrian, Westover, Allan, Martin, Terrance J., Murray, Mathew L., Myster, Susan M. T., O’Connell, Barbara, and Anthony Zalucha, L. 1995 The State Road Coulee Site: 47 Lc 176. The Wisconsin Archeologist 76:48-230.Google Scholar
Anderson, Roger C. 1998 Overview of Midwestern Oak Savanna. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters 86:1-18.Google Scholar
Arzigian, Constance M. 1981 The Archeology of Gran Grae: A Survey of the Valley and Headlands of a Small Stream in the Driftless Area, Crawford County, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 62:207-246.Google Scholar
Arzigian, Constance M. 1987 The Emergence of Horticultural Economies in Southwestern Wisconsin. In Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands, edited by William F. Keegan, pp. 217-242. Occasional Paper No. 7. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Arzigian, Constance M., Boszhardt, Robert F., Halverson, Holly P., and Theler, James L. 1994 The Gundersen Site: An Oneota Village and Cemetery in La Crosse, Wisconsin. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 41:3-75.Google Scholar
Arzigian, Constance M., Boszhardt, Robert F., Theler, James L., Rodell, Roland L., and Scott, Michael J. 1989 Human Adaptation in the Upper Mississippi Valley: A Study of the Pammel Creek Oneota Site (47Lc61), La Crosse, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 70:1-281.Google Scholar
Baerreis, David A., and Bryson, Reid A. 1965 Climatic Episodes and the Dating of the Mississippian Cultures. The Wisconsin Archeologist 46:203-220.Google Scholar
Barrett, Samuel A. 1933 Ancient Aztalan. Bulletin 13. Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Bartlein, Patrick J., and Webb, Thompson III 1982 Holocene Climatic Changes Estimated from Pollen Data from the Northern Midwest. In Quaternary History of the Driftless Area, with Special Papers, edited by James C. Knox, Lee Clayton, and David M. Mickelson, pp. 67-82. Field Trip Guide Book No. 5. Geological and Natural History Survey, University of Wisconsin–Extension, Madison.Google Scholar
Beier, Paul, and McCullough, Dale R. 1990 Factors Influencing White-tailed Deer Activity Patterns and Habitat Use. Wildlife Monographs No. 109. Journal of Wildlife Management.Google Scholar
Benchley, Elizabeth D., Nansel, Blane, Dobbs, Clark A., Thurston Myster, Susan M., and O’Connell, Barbara H. 1997 Archeology and Bioarcheology of the Northern Woodlands. Research Series No. 52. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Benden, Danielle M. 2004 The Fisher Mounds Site Complex: Early Middle Mississippian Exploration in the Upper Mississippi Valley. The Minnesota Archaeologist 63:7-24.Google Scholar
Benn, David W. 1979 Some Trends and Traditions in Woodland Cultures of the Quad-State Region in the Upper Mississippi River Basin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 60:47-82.Google Scholar
Benn, David W. 1989 Hawks, Serpents, and Bird-Men: Emergence of the Oneota Mode of Production. Plains Anthropologist 34(125):233-260.Google Scholar
Benn, David W. 1991 The Christenson Oneota Site, 13 PK407. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 38:16-55.Google Scholar
Benn, David W. 1995 Woodland People and the Roots of the Oneota. In Oneota Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future, edited by William Green, pp. 91-139. Report 20. Office of the State Archaeologist. University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Benn, David W., and Green, William 2000 Late Woodland Cultures in Iowa. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Mid-continent, edited by Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, and Andrew C. Fortier, pp. 429-196. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Berwick, David E. 1975 Analysis of the Vertebrate Fauna of Lawrence I Rock-shelter (Ve-154), Vernon County, Wisconsin. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin–Madison.Google Scholar
Binford, Lewis R. 2001 Constructing Frames of Reference: An Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building Using Hunter-Gatherer and Environmental Data Sets. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Birmingham, Robert A., and Eisenberg, Leslie E. 2000 Indian Mounds of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Bluhm, Elaine A., and Fenner, Gloria J. 1961 OakForest Site. In Chicago Area Archaeology, edited by Elaine A. Bluhm, pp.139-161. Bulletin No. 3. Illinois Archaeological Survey, University of Illinois, Urbana.Google Scholar
Bluhm, Elaine A., and Liss, Allen 1961 The Anker Site. In Chicago Area Archaeology, edited by Elaine A. Bluhm, pp. 89-138. Bulletin No. 3. Illinois Archaeological Survey, University of Illinois, Urbana.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 1982 Archaeological Investigations in the Lowland Flood Plain of Navigational Pool 10 near Prairie du Chien, Crawford County, Wisconsin. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin–Madison.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 1994 Oneota Group Continuity at La Crosse: The Brice Prairie, Pammel Creek, and Valley View Phases. The Wisconsin Archeologist 75:173-236.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 1997 Ceramics from the Sand Lake Archaeological District, Wisconsin. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 44:139-159.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 1998 Oneota Horizons: A La Crosse Perspective. The Wisconsin Archeologist 79:196-226.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 2000 Turquoise, Rasps, and Heartlines: The Oneota Bison Pull. In Mounds, Modoc, and Mesoamerica: Papers in Honor of Melvin L. Fowler, edited by Steven R. Ahler, pp. 361-373. Scientific Papers Vol. 28. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 2002 Contracting Stemmed: What’s the Point? Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 27:35-67.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 2003a A Projectile Point Guide for the Upper Mississippi River Valley. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 2003b Deep Cave Rock Art in the Upper Mississippi Valley. Prairie Smoke Press, St. Paul, Minnesota.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 2004a The Late Woodland and Middle Mississippian Component at the Iva Site, La Crosse County, Wisconsin, in the Driftless Area of the Upper Mississippi River Valley. The Minnesota Archaeologist 63:60-85.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F. 2004b Blind Dates and Blind Faith: The Timeless Story of the “Emergent” Oneota McKern Phase. The Wisconsin Archeologist 85:1-30.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F., Bailey, Thomas W., and Gallagher, James P. 1985 Oneota Ridged Fields at the Sand Lake Site (471Lc44), La Crosse County, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 66:47-67.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F., and Goetz, Natalie 2000 An Apparent Late Woodland Boundary in Western Wisconsin. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 25:269-287.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F., Holtz, Wendy, and Nienow, Jeremy 1995 A Compilation of Oneota Radiocarbon Dates as of 1995. In Oneota Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future, edited by William Green, pp. 203-227. Report 20. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Boszhardt, Robert F., and McCarthy, Joelle 1999 Oneota End Scrapers and Experiments in Hide Dressing: An Analysis from the La Crosse Locality. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 24:177-199.Google Scholar
Brashler, Janet G., Garland, Elisabeth B., Holman, Margaret B., Lovis, William A., and Martin, Susan A. 2000 Adaptive Strategies and Socioeconomic Systems in Northern Great Lakes Riverine Environments: The Late Woodland of Michigan. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, and Andrew C. Fortier, pp. 543-579. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Brown, James A. 1982 What Kind of Economy Did the Oneota Have? In Oneota Studies, edited by Guy E. Gibbon, pp.107–112. Publications in Anthropology No. 1. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Brown, James A., and Asch, David L. 1990 Cultural Setting: The Oneota Tradition. In At the Edge of Prehistory: Huber Phase Archaeology in the Chicago Area, edited by James A. Brown and Patricia J. O’Brien, pp. 145-154. Center for American Archeology Press, Kampsville, Illinois.Google Scholar
Brown, James A., and Kelly, John 2000 Cahokia and the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. In Mounds, Modoc, and MesoAmerica: Papers in Honor of Melvin L. Fowler, edited by Steven R. Ahler, pp. 469-510. Scientific Papers Vol. 28, Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Brown, James A., and O’Brien, Patricia J. (editors) 1990 At the Edge of Prehistory: Huber Phase Archaeology in the Chicago Area, Center for American Archeology Press, Kampsville, Illinois.Google Scholar
Charles, Douglas K., and Buikstra, Jane E. 1983 Archaic Mortuary Sites in the Central Mississippi Drainage: Distribution, Structure, and Behavioral Implications. In Archaic Hunters and Gatherers in the American Midwest, edited by James L. Phillips and James A. Brown, pp. 117-145. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Cleland, Charles E. 1966 The Prehistoric Animal Ecology and Ethnozoology of the Upper Great Lakes Region. Anthropological Papers No. 29. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Colburn, Mona 1990 Mississippian Faunal Remains from the Lundy Site (11JD140), Jo Daviess County, Illinois. Illinois Archaeology 1:1-38.Google Scholar
Collins, James M., Slaughter, Richard W., Asch, David L., Kris Hirst, K., and Cordell, John 1997 A Brief Evaluation of the Carroll Rock Shelter, Dubuque County, Iowa. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 44:84-101.Google Scholar
Conrad, Lawrence A. 1991 The Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Central Illinois Valley. In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, pp. 119-156. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Creed, William A. 2001 The Total Removal Hunt. In Sandhill Whitetails: Providing New Perspective for Deer Management, by John F. Kubisiak, Keith R. McCaffery, William A. Creed, Thomas A. Heberlein, Richard C. Bishop, and Robert E. Rolley, pp. 53-65. Bureau of Integrated Science Services, Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Curtis, John T. 1959 The Vegetation of Wisconsin: An Ordination of Plant Communities. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Dahlberg, Burton L., and Guettinger, Ralph C. 1956 The White-tailed Deer in Wisconsin. Technical Wildlife Bulletin No. 14. Wisconsin Conservation Department, Madison.Google Scholar
Davis, Anthony M. 1979 Wetland Succession, Fire and the Pollen Record: A Midwestern Example. The American Midland Naturalist 102:86-94.Google Scholar
Denevan, William M. 1992 The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82:369-385.Google Scholar
Dinsmore, James J. 1994 A Country So Full of Game: The Story of Wildlife in Iowa. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Dirst, Victoria 1998 Reconsidering the Prehistory of Northeastern Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 79:113-121.Google Scholar
Dobbs, Clark A. 1984 Oneota Settlement Patterns in the Blue Earth River Valley, Minnesota. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
Dods, Roberta R. 2002 The Death of Smokey Bear: The Ecodisaster Myth and Forest Management Practices in Prehistoric North America. World Archaeology 33:475-487.Google Scholar
Douglas, John G. 1976 Collins:A Late Woodland Ceremonial Complex in the Woodfordian Northeast. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, Urbana.Google Scholar
Drake, Richard B. 2001 A History of Appalachia. University of Kentucky Press, Lexington.Google Scholar
Edmunds, R. David, and Peyser, Joseph L. 1993 The Fox Wars: The Mesquakie Challenge to New France. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E. 1991 The Apple River Mississippian Culture of Northwestern Illinois. In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, pp. 164-182. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E. 1999 The Langford Tradition and the Process of Tribalization of the Middle Mississippian Borders. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 24:3-56.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E., and Barry Lewis, R. (editors) 1991 Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Emerson, Thomas E., and Titelbaum, Anne R. 2000 The Des Plaines Complex and the Late Woodland Stage of Northern Illinois. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, and Andrew C. Fortier, pp. 441-427. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Finney, Fred A. 1992 Hartley Fort Revisited: Late Woodland, Mill Creek, and Mississippian Culture Contact in Northeast Iowa. Paper presented at the 37th Annual Midwest Archaeological Conference, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Copy on file, Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Finney, Fred A. 1993 Cahokia’s Northern Hinterland as Viewed from the Fred Edwards Site in Southwest Wisconsin: Intrasite and Regional Evidence for Production, Consumption, and Exchange. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin–Madison.Google Scholar
Finney, Fred A. 2000 Exchange and Risk Management in the Upper Mississippi River Valley, A.D. 1000–1200. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 25:353-376.Google Scholar
Finney, Fred A., Baldner, Russell P., and Arthur Bettis, E. III 1993 The 1993 Field Season at the Hartley Fort Site in Northeast Iowa. Paper presented at the 38th Annual Midwest Archaeological Conference, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Copy on file, Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Finney, Fred A., and Stoltman, James B. 1991 The Fred Edwards Site: A Case of Stirling Phase Culture Contact in Southwestern Wisconsin. In New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 229-252. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 2. Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Fishel, Richard L. 1999 Bison Hunters of the Western Prairies: Archaeological Investigations at the Dixon Site (13WD8), Woodbury County, Iowa. Report 21. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Flannery, Kent V. 1972 The Origins of the Village as a Settlement Type in MesoAmerica and the Near East: A Comparative Study. In Man, Settlement and Urbanism, edited by Peter J. Ucko, Ruth Tringham, and Geoffrey W. Dimbleby, pp. 23-53. Duckworth, London.Google Scholar
Flannery, Kent V. 2002 The Origins of the Village Revisited: From Nuclear to Extended Households. American Antiquity 67:417-433.Google Scholar
Ford, James A. 1969 A Comparison of Formative Cultures in the Americas: Diffusion or the Psychic Unity of Man. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology Vol. 11. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D. C.Google Scholar
Freeman, Joan E. 1966 The Price Site III, RI 4, a Burial Ground in Richland County, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 47:33-87.Google Scholar
Freeman, Joan E. 1969 The Millville Site, A Middle Woodland Village in Grant County, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 50:37-88.Google Scholar
Gallagher, James P., and Arzigian, Constance M. 1994 A New Perspective on Late Prehistoric Agricultural Intensification in the Upper Mississippi River Valley. In Agricultural Origins and Development in the Midcontinent, edited by William Green, pp. 171-188. Report 19. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Gallagher, James P., Boszhardt, Robert F., Sasso, Robert F., and Katherine Stevenson 1985 Oneota Ridged Field Agriculture in Southwestern Wisconsin. American Antiquity 50:605-612.Google Scholar
Gallagher, James P., Boszhardt, Robert F., Sasso, Robert F., and Katherine Stevenson 1987 Floodplain Agriculture in the Driftless Area: A Reply to Overstreet. American Antiquity 52:398-404.Google Scholar
Gallagher, James P., and Sasso, Robert F. 1987 Investigations into Oneota Ridged Field Agriculture on the Northern Margin of the Prairie Peninsula. Plains Anthropologist 32(116):141–15l.Google Scholar
Gallagher, James P., and Stevenson, Katherine 1982 Oneota Subsistence and Settlement in Southwestern Wisconsin. In Oneota Studies, edited by Guy E. Gibbon, pp. 15-27. Publications in Anthropology No. 1. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Geier, Clarence R., and Loftus, Michael K. 1975 Settlement Data from the Lower Big Platte and Platte Rivers and Adjacent Sections of Mississippi River Bottoms. The Wisconsin Archeologist 56:78-151.Google Scholar
Gibbon, Guy E. 1969 The Walker-Hooper and Bornick Sites: Two Grand River Phase Oneota Sites in Central Wisconsin. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin–Madison.Google Scholar
Gibbon, Guy E. 1970 The Midway Village Site: An Orr Phase Oneota Site in the Upper Mississippi River Valley. The Wisconsin Archeologist 51:79-162.Google Scholar
Gibbon, Guy E. 1972 Cultural Dynamics and the Development of the Oneota Life-Way in Wisconsin. American Antiquity 37:166-185.Google Scholar
Gibbon, Guy E. 1979 The Mississippian Occupation of the Red Wing Area. Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series No. 13. Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.Google Scholar
Gibbon, Guy E., and Dobbs, Clark A. 1991 The Mississippian Presence in the Red Wing Area, Minnesota. In New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 281-305. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 2. Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Lynne 1991 The Implications of Aztalan’s Location. In New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 209-227. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 2. Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Lynne, and Freeman, Joan 1997 Aztalan—A Middle Mississippian Village. In Wisconsin Archaeology, edited by Robert A. Birmingham, Carol I. Mason, and James B. Stoltman. The Wisconsin Archeologist 78:223-248.Google Scholar
Gradwohl, David M. 1974 Archaeology of the Central Des Moines River Valley: A Preliminary Summary. In Aspects of Upper Great Lakes Anthropology: Papers in Honor of Lloyd A. Wilford, edited by Elden Johnson, pp. 90-102. Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series No. 11. Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.Google Scholar
Gramly, Richard M. 1977 Deerskins and Hunting Territories: Competition for a Scarce Resource of the Northeastern Woodlands. American Antiquity 42:601-605.Google Scholar
Green, William 1986 Prehistoric Woodland Peoples in the Upper Mississippi Valley. In Prehistoric Mound Builders of the Mississippi Valley, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 17-25. Putnam Museum, Davenport, Iowa.Google Scholar
Green, William 2001 Changing Interpretations of Effigy Mound Ages, Origins, and Cultural Affiliations. In Effigy Mounds National Monument Cultural Affiliation Report, Vol. 1. Research Papers 26:85–109. Office of the State Archaeologist and American Indian and Native Studies Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Green, William, and Nolan, David J. 2000 Late Woodland Peoples in West-Central Illinois. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, and Andrew C. Fortier, pp. 345-386. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Green, William, and Rodell, Roland L. 1994 The Mississippian Presence and Cahokia Interaction at Trempealeau, Wisconsin. American Antiquity 59:334-359.Google Scholar
Griffin, James B. 1960 A Hypothesis for the Prehistory of the Winnebago. In Culture in History, edited by Stanley Diamond, pp. 809-865. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Grossman, Zoltan 1998 The Ho-Chunk & Dakota Nations. In Wisconsin’s Past and Present: A Historical Atlas, pp. 8-9. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Habitcht-Mauche, Judith A. 2000 Pottery, Food, Hides, and Women: Labor, Production, and Exchange across the Protohistoric Plains-Pueblo Frontier. In The Archaeology of Regional Interaction: Religion, Warfare, and Exchange across the American Southwest and Beyond: Proceedings of the 1996 Southwest Symposium, edited by Michelle Hegmon, pp. 209-234. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Hall, Robert L. 1958 Commentary on Carcajou Carbon-14 Dates. The Wisconsin Archeologist 39:174-175.Google Scholar
Hall, Robert L. 1962 The Archeology of Carcajou Point. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Hall, Robert L. 1967 The Mississippian Heartland and Its Plains Relationship. Plains Anthropologist 12(36): 175-194.Google Scholar
Hall, Robert L. 1991 Cahokia Identity and Interaction Models of Cahokia Mississippian. In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, pp. 3-34. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Hall, Robert L. 1993 Red Banks, Oneota, and the Winnebago: Views from a Distant Rock. The Wisconsin Archeologist 74:10-79.Google Scholar
Harn, Alan D. 1991 The Eveland Site: Inroad to Spoon River Mississippian Society. In New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 129-153. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 2. Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Hart, John P., and Margaret Scarry, C. 1999 The Age of Common Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) in the Northeastern United States. American Antiquity 64:653-658.Google Scholar
Harvey, Amy E. 1979 Oneota Culture in Northwestern Iowa. Report 12. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Hawley, Marlin F. 2002 Excavations at the Murphy (47 DA-736) and River Quarry (47 DA-768) Sites. Wisconsin Archaeological Society Newsletter 4:1-4.Google Scholar
Henning, Dale R. 1970 Development and Interrelationships of Oneota Culture in the Lower Missouri River Valley. The Missouri Archaeologist 32.Google Scholar
Henning, Dale R. 1995 Oneota Evolution and Interactions: A Perspective from the Wever Terrace, Southeast Iowa. In Oneota Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future, edited by William Green, pp. 65-88. Report 20. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Henning, Dale R. 1998 Managing Oneota: A Reiteration and Testing of Contemporary Archaeological Taxonomy. The Wisconsin Archeologist 79:9-28.Google Scholar
Hickerson, Harold 1965 The Virginia Deer and Intertribal Buffer Zones in the Upper Mississippi Valley. In Man, Culture, and Animals: The Role of Animals in Human Ecological Adjustments, edited by Anthony Leeds and Andrew P. Vayda, pp. 43-65. Publication No. 78. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Hickerson, Harold 1970 The Chippewa and their Neighbors: A Study in Eth-nohistory. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Charles F. 1966 A Winter in the West by a New Yorker. March of America Facsimile Series No. 75. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan.Google Scholar
Hole, Francis D. 1976 Soils of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Hollinger, R. Eric 1993 Investigating Oneota Residence Through Domestic Architecture. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri–Columbia.Google Scholar
Hollinger, R. Eric 1995 Residence Patterns and Oneota Cultural Dynamics. In Oneota Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future, edited by William Green, pp. 141-174. Report 20. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Holman, Margaret B., and Brashler, Janet G. 1999 Economics, Material Culture, and Trade in the Late Woodland Lower Peninsula of Michigan. In Retrieving Michigan’s Buried Past: The Archaeology of the Great Lakes State, edited by John R. Halsey, pp. 212-220. Bulletin 64. Cranbrook Institute of Science, Blooming Hills, Michigan.Google Scholar
Holtz, Wendy K., and Boszhardt, Robert F. 1998 Final Inventory of Pre-Eumpean Archaeological Sites in the La Farge Lake Project, Vernon County, Wisconsin. Reports of Investigations No. 319. Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse.Google Scholar
Hurley, William M. 1965 Archaeological Research in the Projected Kickapoo Reservoir, Vernon County, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 46:1-114.Google Scholar
Hurley, William M. 1975 An Analysis of Effigy Mound Complexes in Wisconsin. Anthropological Papers No. 59. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Hurley, William M. 1978 The Armstrong Site: A Silvernale Phase Oneota Village in Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 59:1-145.Google Scholar
Iseminger, William R., Pauketat, Timothy R., Koldehoff, Brad, Kelly, Lucretia S., Blake, Leonard, Holley, George R., Lopinot, Neal H., Dalan, Rinita A., and Woods, William I. 1990 The Archaeology of the Cahohia Palisade. Illinois Cultural Resources Study No. 14. Illinois Historic Preservation Agency, Springfield.Google Scholar
Jackson, Hartley H. T. 1961 Mammals of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Jeske, Robert J. 2001 Crescent Bay Hunt Club: Radiocarbon Dates and Research Summary. In Program in Midwestern Archaeology (Southeastern Wisconsin Archaeology Program): 2000–2001, edited by Robert J. Jeske, pp. 4-12. Report of Investigations No. 148. Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Jeske, Robert J. 2003 Radiocarbon Dates. In Lake Koshkonong 2002/2003: Archaeological Investigations at Three Sites in Jefferson County, Wisconsin, edited by Robert J. Jeske, pp. 109-114. Report of Investigations 153. Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Kane, Lucile M., Holmquist, June D., and Gilman, Carolyn (editors) 1978 The Northern Expeditions of Stephen H. Long, The Journals of 1817 and 1823 and Related Documents. Minnesota Historical Society Press, St. Paul.Google Scholar
Kay, Charles E. 1998 Are Ecosystems Structured from the Top-Down or the Bottom-Up: A New Look at an Old Debate. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26:484-498.Google Scholar
Kay, Jeanne 1979 Wisconsin Indian Hunting Patterns, 1634–1836. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 69:402-418.Google Scholar
Kay, Jeanne 1996 Indian Responses to a Mining Frontier. In The Frontier: Comparative Studies, Vol. 2, edited by William W. Savage, Jr. and Stephen I. Thompson, pp. 193-203. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Keating, William H. 1959 Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of the St. Peter’s River, Lake Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, &c. Performed in the Year 1823. Ross & Haines, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Keeley, Lawrence H. 1996 War Before Civilization. University of Oxford Press, New York.Google Scholar
Keesing, Felix M. 1987 Menomini Indians of Wisconsin: A Study of Three Centuries of Culture Contact and Change. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Kelly, John E. 1991 Cahokia and Its Role as a Gateway Center in Interregional Exchange. In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, pp. 61-80. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Kelly, John M. 2002 Delineating the Spatial and Temporal Boundaries of Late Woodland Collared Wares from Wisconsin and Illinois. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Keyes, Charles R. 1927 Prehistoric Man in Iowa. The Palimpsest 8:125-229.Google Scholar
Kline, Virginia M., and Cottam, Grant 1979 Vegetation Response to Climate and Fire in the Drift-less Area of Wisconsin. Ecology 60:861-868.Google Scholar
Koenig, Walter D., and Knops, Johannes M. H. 2005 The Mystery of Masting in Trees. American Scientist 93:340-347.Google Scholar
Krech, Shepard III 1999 The Ecological Indian: Myth and History. W.W. Norton, New York.Google Scholar
Kubisiak, John F. 2001 Trophy Buck Management. In Sandhill Whitetails: Providing New Perspective for Deer Management, by John F. Kubisiak, Keith R. McCaffery, William A. Creed, Thomas A. Herberlein, Richard C. Bishop, and Robert E. Rolley, pp. 67-89. Bureau of Integrated Science Services, Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Lapham, Increase A. 1855 The Antiquities of Wisconsin, as Surveyed and Described. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
LeBlanc, Steven A. 1999 Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Lewis, Theodore H. 1884–1888 Field Notes for Western Wisconsin. Northwestern Archaeological Survey Journals and Correspondence, on file, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.Google Scholar
Lohse, Ernest S. 1988 Trade Goods. In History of Indian-White Relations, edited by Wilcomb E. Washburn, pp. 396-403. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 4, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.Google Scholar
Lopinot, Neal H., and Woods, William I. 1993 Wood Overexploitation and the Collapse of Cahokia. In Foraging and Farming in the Eastern Woodlands, edited by C. Margaret Scarry, pp. 206-231. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Madrigal, T. Cregg, and Holt, Julie Zimmermann 2002 White-tailed Deer Meat and Marrow Return Rates and Their Application to Eastern Woodlands Archaeology. American Antiquity 67:745-759.Google Scholar
Maher, Robert A., and Baerreis, David A. 1958 The Aztalan Lithic Complex. The Wisconsin Archeologist 39:5-26.Google Scholar
Mallam, R. Clark 1976 The Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation: An Interpretive Model. Report 9. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Martin, Lawrence 1965 The Physical Geography of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Martin, Paul S., and Szuter, Christine R. 1999 War Zones and Game Sinks in Lewis and Clark’s West. Conservation Biology 13:36-45.Google Scholar
Mason, Ronald J. 1966 Two Stratified Sites on the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin. Anthropological Papers No. 26. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Mason, Ronald J. 1990 Late Woodland and Oneota Occupations on Rock Island, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 71:115-136.Google Scholar
Mason, Ronald J. 1993 Oneota and Winnebago Ethnogenesis: An Overview. The Wisconsin Archeologist 74:400-421.Google Scholar
McCaffery, Keith R. 2001 Evaluation of Population Estimation Methods. In Sandhill Whitetails: Providing New Perspective for Deer Management, by John F. Kubisiak, Keith R. McCaffery, William A. Creed, Thomas A. Herberlein, Richard C. Bishop, and Robert E. Rolley, pp. 137-153. Bureau of Integrated Science Services, Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
McConaughy, Mark A. 1991 The Rench Site Late Late Woodland/Middle Mississippian Farming Hamlet from the Central Illinois River Valley: Food for Thought. In New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 101-128. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 2. Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
McCullough, Dale R. 1979 The George Reserve Deer Herd: Population Ecology of a K-Selected Species. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
McDowell, Patricia F. 1983 Evidence of Stream Response to Holocene Climatic Change in a Small Wisconsin Watershed. Quaternary Research 19:100-117.Google Scholar
McEnaney, Katie, and Bryson, Reid 2005 Archaeoclimatic Models for the La Crosse Area. Archaeoclimatology Laboratory, Center for Climatic Research, Gaylord Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin–Madison. Copy on file, Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse.Google Scholar
McKusick, Marshall 1964 Exploring Turkey River Mounds. The Palimpsest 45:473-85.Google Scholar
McKusick, Marshall 1973 The Grant Oneota Village. Report No. 4. Office of State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Mead, Barbara 1979 The Rehbein I Site (47-Ri-81): A Multicomponent Site in Southwestern Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 60:91-182.Google Scholar
Meinholz, Norman M., and Kolb, Jennifer L. 1997 The Statz Site (47Da-642): A Late Woodland Community and Archaic Lithic Workshop in Dane County, Wisconsin. Archaeology Research Series No. 5. Museum Archaeology Program, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Mickelson, David M., Knox, James C., and Clayton, Lee 1982 Glaciation of the Driftless Area: An Evaluation of the Evidence. In Quaternary History of the Driftless Area, with Special Papers, edited by James C. Knox, Lee Clayton, and David M. Mickelson, pp. 155-169. Field Trip Guide Book No. 5. Geological and Natural History Survey, University of Wisconsin–Extension, Madison.Google Scholar
Milner, George R. 1984 The Mien Site (11-S-63). American Bottom Archaeology, FAI-270 Site Reports, Vol. 7. Illinois Department of Transportation. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Milner, George R. 1998 The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Milner, George R. 2005 Nineteenth-Century Arrow Wounds and Perceptions of Prehistoric Warfare. American Antiquity 70:144-156.Google Scholar
Milner, George R., Anderson, Eve, and Smith, Virginia G. 1991 Warfare in Late Prehistoric West-Central Illinois. American Antiquity 56:581-603.Google Scholar
Moffat, Charles R. 1998 Oneota in the Central Des Moines Valley. The Wisconsin Archeologist 79:165-195.Google Scholar
Moffat, Charles R., and Boszhardt, Robert F. 2005 Sand Country Prehistory: The Late Woodland Settlement of the Central Wisconsin River Drainage. Manuscript on file, Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse.Google Scholar
Moran, Joseph M., and Hopkins, Edward J. 2002 Wisconsin’s Weather and Climate. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Mott, Mildred 1938 The Relation of Historic Indian Tribes to Archaeological Manifestations in Iowa. The Iowa Journal of History and Politics 36:227-314.Google Scholar
Muir, John 1965 The Story of My Boyhood and Youth. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Nelson, Richard 1997 Heart and Blood: Living with Deer in America. Vintage Books, New York.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Michael J. 1987 Sedentism, Population Growth and Resource Selection in the Woodland Midwest: A Review of Coevolutionary Developments. Current Anthropology 28:177-197.Google Scholar
O’Gorman, Jodie (editor) 1993 The Tremaine Site Complex: Oneota Occupation in the La Crosse Locality, Wisconsin, Volume 1: The OT Site (47 Lc-262). Archaeology Research Series No. 1. Museum Archaeology Program, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
O’Gorman, Jodie 1994 The Tremaine Site Complex: Oneota Occupation in the La Crosse Locality, Wisconsin, Volume 2: The Filler Site (47 Lc-147). Archaeology Research Series No. 2. Museum Archaeology Program, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
O’Gorman, Jodie 1995 The Tremaine Site Complex: Oneota Occupation in the La Crosse Locality, Wisconsin, Volume 3: The Tremaine Site (47 Lc-95). Archaeology Research Series No. 3. Museum Archaeology Program, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Omernik, James M., Chapman, Shannen S., LiUie, Richard A., and Dumke, Robert T. 2000 Ecoregions of Wisconsin. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters 88:77-103.Google Scholar
Osborn, Alan J, 2003 “Places Where They Kill Deer”:Moisture Islands, Winter Climate, and Ungulate Ecology in the Northwestern Great Plains. In Islands on the Plains: Ecological, Social, and Ritual Use of Landscapes, edited by Marcel Kornfeld and Alan J. Osborn, pp.193-219. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Overstreet, David F. 1980 The Convent Knoll Site (47-Wk-327): A Red Ochre Cemetery in Waukesha County, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 61:34-90.Google Scholar
Overstreet, David F. 1981 Investigations at the Pipe Site (47 Fd 10) and Some Perspectives on Eastern Wisconsin Oneota Prehistory. The Wisconsin Archeologist 62:365-525.Google Scholar
Overstreet, David F. 1989 Oneota Tradition Culture History—New Data from the Old Spring Site (47Wn350). Reports of Investigation No. 219. Great Lakes Archaeological Research Center, Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Overstreet, David F. 1995 The Eastern Wisconsin Oneota Regional Continuity. In Oneota Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future, edited by William Green, pp. 33-64. Report 20. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Overstreet, David F. 1998 East and West Expressions of the Emergent Oneota Horizon—Perceptual Problems and Empirical Realities. The Wisconsin Archeologist 79:29-37.Google Scholar
Overstreet, David F. 2000 Cultural Dynamics of the Late Prehistoric Period in Southern Wisconsin. In Mounds, Modoc, and MesoAmerica: Papers in Honor of Melvin L. Fowler, edited by Steven R. Ahler, pp. 405-438. Scientific Papers Vol. 28. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Overstreet, David F. 2001 Dreaded Dolostone and Old Smudge Stories—Response to Critiques of Emergent Horizon Oneota 14C Dates from Eastern Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 82:33-86.Google Scholar
Parmalee, Paul W. 1959 Animal Remains from Raddatz Rockshelter, Sk5, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 40:83-90.Google Scholar
Parmalee, Paul W. 1960 Animal Remains from the Durst Rockshelter, Sauk County, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 41:11-17.Google Scholar
Parmalee, Paul W., and Klippel, Walter E. 1974 Freshwater Mussels as a Prehistoric Food Resource. American Antiquity 39:421-434.Google Scholar
Pauketat, Timothy R. 1987 A Burned Domestic Dwelling at Cahokia. The Wisconsin Archeologist 68:212-237.Google Scholar
Perlin, John 1989 A Forest Journey: The Roll of Wood in the Development of Civilization. W. W. Norton, New York.Google Scholar
Phillips, Paul C. 1961 The Fur Trade. Vol. II. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Pike, Zebulon M. 1966 [1810] Sources of the Mississippi and the Western Louisiana Territory. Originally published as An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi, and Through the Western Parts of Louisiana, to the Sources of the Arkansaw, Kans, La Platte, and Pierre Jaun, Rivers. C. & A. Conrad, Philadelphia. 1966 facsimile ed. Readex Microprint.Google Scholar
Pillaert, E. Elizabeth 1969 Faunal Remains from the Millville Site (47-Gt 53), Grant County, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 50:93-108.Google Scholar
Prior, Jean C. 1991 Landforms of Iowa. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City, Iowa.Google Scholar
Pyne, Stephen J. 1982 Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Pyszczyk, Heinz W. 1999 Historic Period Metal Projectile Points and Arrows, Alberta, Canada: A Theory for Aboriginal Arrow Design on the Great Plains. Plains Anthropologist 44(168): 163-187.Google Scholar
Ray, Arthur J. 1974 Indians in the Fur Trade: Their Role as Trappers, Hunters, and Middlemen in the Lands Southwest of Hudson Bay, 1660–1870. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.Google Scholar
Redman, Charles L. 1999 Human Impact on Ancient Environments. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Reidhead, Van A. 1981 A Linear Programming Model of Prehistoric Subsistence Optimization: A Southwestern Indiana Example. Prehistoric Research Series, Vol. 6(1). Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.Google Scholar
Richards, John D. 1992 Ceramics and Culture at Aztalan, a Late Prehistoric Village in Southeast Wisconsin. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Richards, John D., and Jeske, Robert J. 2002 Location, Location, Location: The Temporal and Culstural Context of Late Prehistoric Settlement in Southeast Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 83:32-54.Google Scholar
Richards, John D., Richards, Patricia B., and Nicholls, Brian D. 1998 Archaeological Investigations in the Carcajou Point Locale, Sumner Township, Jefferson County, Wisconsin. Reports of Investigation No. 129. Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Rodell, Roland L. 1991 The Diamond Bluff Site Complex and Cahokia Influence in the Red Wing Locality. In New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 253-280. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 2. Prehistory Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Rodell, Roland L. 2003 Spheres of Interaction and Late Prehistory in the Northern Mississippi Valley. The Wisconsin Archeologist 84:181-196.Google Scholar
Rowe, Chandler W. 1956 The Effigy Mound Culture of Wisconsin. Publications in Anthropology No.3. Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Rue, Leonard Lee III 1978 The Deer of North America. Crown Publishing, New York.Google Scholar
Salkin, Philip H. 2000 The Horicon and Kekoskee Phases: Cultural Complexity in the Late Woodland Stage in Southeastern Wisconsin. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, and Andrew C. Fortier, pp. 525-542. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Salzer, Robert J. 1987 Preliminary Report on the Gottschall Site (47IA80). The Wisconsin Archeologist 68:419-472.Google Scholar
Salzer, Robert J. 1993 Oral Literature and Archaeology. The Wisconsin Archeologist 74:80-119.Google Scholar
Salzer, Robert J., and Rajnovich, Grace 2000 The Gottschall Rockshelter: An Archaeological Mystery. Prairie Smoke Press, St. Paul, Minnesota.Google Scholar
Santure, Sharron K., Harn, Alan D., and Esarey, Duane 1990 Archaeological Investigations at the Morton Village and Norris Farms 36 Cemetery. Reports of Investigations No. 45. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Sasso, Robert F. 1989 Oneota Settlement Practices in the La Crosse Region: An Analysis of the Coon Creek Drainage in the Driftless Area of Western Wisconsin. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.Google Scholar
Sasso, Robert F. 1993 La Crosse Region Oneota Adaptation: Changing Late Prehistoric Subsistence and Settlement Patterns in the Upper Mississippi Valley. The Wisconsin Archeologist 74:324-369.Google Scholar
Schorger, Arlie W. 1953 The White-Tailed Deer in Early Wisconsin. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters 42:197-247.Google Scholar
Schroeder, Sissel 1999 Maize Productivity in the Eastern Woodlands and Great Plains of North America. American Antiquity 64:499-516.Google Scholar
Scott, Michael J., and Boszhardt, Robert 1992 An Archaeological Survey of the Bad Axe River Valley, Vernon County, Wisconsin. Reports of Investigations No. 142. Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse.Google Scholar
Simon, Mary L. 2003 Red Cedar, White Oak, and Bluestem Grass: The Colors of the Mississippian Construction. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 27:273-308.Google Scholar
Spielmann, Katherine A. 1991 Coercion or Cooperation? Plains-Pueblo Interaction in the Protohistoric Period. In Farmers, Hunters, and Colonists: Interaction Between the Southwest and the Southern Plains, edited by Katherine A. Spielmann, pp. 36-50. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon.Google Scholar
Stahl, Peter W. 1996 Holocene Biodiversity: An Archaeological Perspective from the Americas. Annual Review of Anthropology 25:105-126.Google Scholar
Stevenson, Katherine 1985 Oneota Subsistence-Related Behavior in the Driftless Area: A Study of the Valley View Site near La Crosse, Wisconsin. PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Stevenson, Katherine 1994 Chronological and Settlement Aspects of the Valley View Site (47LC34). The Wisconsin Archeologist 75:237-294.Google Scholar
Stoltman, James B. 1986 The Appearance of the Mississippian Culture Tradition in the Upper Mississippi Valley. In Prehistoric Mound Builders of the Mississippi Valley, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 26-34. Putnam Museum, Davenport, Iowa.Google Scholar
Stoltman, James B. 1990 The Woodland Tradition in the Prairie du Chien Locality. In The Woodland Tradition in the Western Great Lakes: Papers Presented to Elden Johnson, edited by Guy E. Gibbon, pp. 239-259. Publications in Anthropology No. 4. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Stoltman, James B. 1991a Cahokia as Seen from the Peripheries. In New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 349-354. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 2. Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Stoltman, James B. 1991b Ceramic Petrography as a Technique for Documenting Cultural Interaction: An Example from the Upper Mississippi Valley. American Antiquity 56:103-120.Google Scholar
Stoltman, James B. 2000 A Reconsideration of the Cultural Processes Linking Cahokia to Its Northern Hinterlands During the Period A.D. 1000–1200. In Mounds, Modoc, and MesoAmerica: Papers in Honor of Melvin L. Fowler, edited by Steven R. Ahler, pp. 439-454, Scientific Papers Vol. 28. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Stoltman, James B., and Christiansen, George W. 2000 The Late Woodland Stage in the Driftless Area of the Upper Mississippi Valley. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, and Andrew C. Fortier, pp. 497-524. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Storck, Peter L. 1972 The Archaeology of Mayland Cave. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin–Madison.Google Scholar
Storck, Peter L. 1974 Some Aspects of Effigy Mound Subsistence and Settlement Patterns during the Late Woodland Period in Wisconsin. Arctic Anthropology 11 (Supplement):272-279.Google Scholar
Studenmund, Sarah 2000 Late Woodland Occupations in the Lower Illinois Valley: Research Questions and Data Sets. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Mid-continent, edited by Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, and Andrew C. Fortier, pp. 301-343. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Styles, Bonnie W. 2000 Late Woodland Faunal Exploitation in the Midwestern United States. In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent, edited by Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, and Andrew C. Fortier, pp. 77-94. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Taylor, Colin F. 2001 Native American Weapons. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Taylor, Richard C. 1838 Notes Respecting Certain Indian Mounds and Earthworks, in the Form of Animal Effigies, Chiefly in the Wisconsin Territory, U.S. American Journal of Science 34:88-104.Google Scholar
Theler, James L. 1981 An Archaeological Survey of Mill Coulee and the Adjacent Uplands of Crawford County, Wisconsin–1979. The Wisconsin Archeologist 62:168-205.Google Scholar
Theler, James L. 1987 Woodland Tradition Economic Strategies: Animal Resource Utilization in Southwestern Wisconsin and Northeastern Iowa. Report 17. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Theler, James L. 2000 Animal Remains from Native American Archaeological Sites in Western Wisconsin. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters 88:121-142.Google Scholar
Theler, James L., and Boszhardt, Robert F. 2000 The End of the Effigy Mound Culture: The Late Woodland to Oneota Transition in Southwestern Wisconsin. Mid-continental Journal of Archaeology 25:289-312.Google Scholar
Theler, James L., and Boszhardt, Robert F. 2003 Twelve Millennia: Archaeology of the Upper Mississippi River Valley. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Theler, James L., and Stevenson, Katherine 2002 Animal Bones. Gottschall News 18:6-7. Gottschall Rock Art Project, Logan Museum of Anthropology, Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Thomas, Cyrus 1894 Report on the Mound Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology. 12th Annual Report. Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Tiffany, Joseph A. 1979 An Overview of Oneota Sites in Southeastern Iowa: A Perspective from the Ceramic Analysis of the Schmeiser Site, 13DM101, Des Moines County, Iowa. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 86:89-101.Google Scholar
Tiffany, Joseph A. 1982 Hartley Fort Ceramics. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 89:133-150.Google Scholar
Tiffany, Joseph A. 1988 Preliminary report on Excavations at the McKinney Oneota Village Site (13LA1), Louisa County, Iowa. The Wisconsin Archeologist 69:227-312.Google Scholar
Tiffany, Joseph A. 1991a Modeling Mill Creek-Mississippian interaction. In New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery, edited by James B. Stoltman, pp. 319-347. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 2. Prehistory Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Tiffany, Joseph A. 1991b Models of Mississippian Culture History in the Western Prairie Peninsula: A Perspective from Iowa. In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, pp. 183-192. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Tiffany, Joseph A. 1998 Southeast Iowa Oneota: A Review. The Wisconsin Archeologist 79:147-164.Google Scholar
Tiffany, Joseph A. 2003 Mississippian Connections with Mill Creek and Cambria. Plains Anthropologist 48(184):21-34.Google Scholar
Trow, Thomas L. 1981 Surveying the Route of the Root: An Archaeological Reconnaissance in Southeastern Minnesota. In Current Directions in Midwestern Archaeology, Selected Papers from the Mankato Conference, edited by Scott F. Anfinson, pp. 91-107. Occasional Publications in Minnesota Anthropology No. 9. Minnesota Archaeological Society, St. Paul.Google Scholar
Union Publishing Company 1998 [1884] History of Vernon County, Wisconsin. Union Publishing, Springfield, Illinois.Google Scholar
Union Publishing Company 1998 electronic reproduction. Brookhaven Press, La Crosse, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Waselkov, Gregory A. 1978 Evolution of Deer Hunting in the Eastern Woodlands. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 3:15-34.Google Scholar
Watt, Bernice K., and Merrill, Annabel L. 1963 Composition of Foods: Raw, Processed and Prepared. Agricultural Handbook No. 8. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.Google Scholar
Webb, Thomas III, Cushing, Edward J., and Wright, Herbert E. Jr. 1983 Holocene Changes in the Vegetation of the Midwest. In Late Quaternary Environments of the UnitedStates, Vol. 2: The Holocene, edited by Herbert E. Wright, Jr., pp. 142-165. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Wedel, Mildred Mott 1959 Oneota Sites on the Upper Iowa River. The Missouri Archaeologist 21:1-181.Google Scholar
Wedel, Mildred Mott 1986 Peering at the Ioway Indians Through the Mist of Time: 1650–Circa 1700. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 33:1-74.Google Scholar
Wedel, Waldo R. 1986 Central Plains Prehistory: Holocene Environments and Culture Change in the Republican River Basin. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Wendland, Wayne M., and Bryson, Reid A. 1974 Dating Climatic Episodes of the Holocene. Quaternary Research 4:9-24.Google Scholar
Wilford, Lloyd A. 1955 A Revised Classification of the Prehistoric Cultures of Minnesota. American Antiquity 21:130-142.Google Scholar
Will-Wolf, Susan, and Stearns, Forest 1998 Characterization of Dry Site Oak Savanna in the Upper Midwest. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters 86:223-234.Google Scholar
Winkler, Marjorie Green 1985 Late-Glacial and Holocene Environmental History of South-Central Wisconsin: A Study of Upland and Wetland Ecosystems. Institute for Environmental Studies and Center for Climatic Research, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resourcse 2005 2004 White-tailed Deer Harvest. Electronic document, http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/wildlife/hunt/deer/Total04.pdf, accessed February 6, 2006.Google Scholar
Wittry, Warren L. 1959a The Raddatz Rockshelter, Sk5, Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 40:33-69.Google Scholar
Wittry, Warren L. 1959b Archaeological Studies of Four Wisconsin Rock-shelters. The Wisconsin Archeologist 40:137-267.Google Scholar
Wittry, Warren L., and Baerreis, David A. 1958 Domestic Houses at Aztalan. The Wisconsin Archeologist 39:62-77.Google Scholar
Wobst, H. Martin 1974 Boundary Conditions for Paleolithic Social Systems: A Simulation Approach. American Antiquity 39:147-178.Google Scholar
Young, Biloine W., and Fowler, Melvin L. 2000 Cahokia: The Great Native American Metropolis. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Zaiucha, L. Anthony 1994 Wood Charcoal from the Valley View Site: The Northern Excavated Area. The Wisconsin Archeologist 75:295-342.Google Scholar