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The Image of the Sea Officer in English Literature, 1660–1710

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 July 2014

Robert E. Glass
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Extract

They that go down to the sea in ships hold an ambiguous position in society. Though drawn from society, and molded by its beliefs and values, seamen spend much of their lives isolated from it. The sea is the sailor's home and workplace, the ship itself a society in miniature with its own customs, rules, and language. People ashore know little of the seaman's life and work, and what they do know is usually drawn from observing the seaman on land, where, out of his element, he often appears as a foreigner in his own country.

For this reason, the image of the seaman that appears in literature is frequently an inaccurate reflection of reality. Yet, it is the literary image of the seaman of the late seventeenth century that has held the imaginations of historians until quite recently. The traditional view of the sea officers of the age has been of two antagonistic groups based on social class, with little or no common ground in terms of education, tradition, values, or experience of the sea. One of these groups, the tarpaulins—the source of the popular nickname for the sailor, Jack Tar—consisted of those who had risen to command from the lower deck; bluff and coarse in manner, lacking in education, tact, and good breeding, but excellent seamen, who were brave, sober, and diligent. The other group, the gentleman captains—ignorant of seamanship and navigation, frivolous, drunken, and corrupt—are said to have pushed most of the tarpaulins out of their commands after the Restoration. This displacement of tarpaulins by gentleman captains is usually viewed as a disaster for the navy, leading to incompetence, undiscipline, and sloth, and an adequate explanation in itself for every naval embarrassment of the late seventeenth century. This view has come under increasing criticism as overly simplistic, if not wholly inaccurate, and one may hope that the recent work of J. D. Davies has exploded it forever.

Type
Research Article
Information
Albion , Volume 26 , Issue 4 , Winter 1994 , pp. 583 - 599
Copyright
Copyright © North American Conference on British Studies 1994

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References

1 For the social world of English seamen in the age of sail, see Capp, Bernard, Cromwell's Navy: The Fleet and the English Revolution, 1648–1660 (Oxford, 1989), ch. 7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Davies, J. D., Gentlemen and Tarpaulins: The Officers and Men of the Restoration Navy (Oxford, 1991), ch. 5Google Scholar; Rediker, Marcus, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (Cambridge, 1987), ch. 4Google Scholar; and Rodger, N. A. M., The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (Annapolis, 1986), ch. 2Google Scholar.

2 For a forceful statement of this view, see Elias, Norbert, “Studies in the Genesis of the Naval Profession,” British Journal of Sociology 1 (1950): 291–303CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Davies, Gentlemen and Tarpaulins, ch. 3 and passim.

4 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, The History of England from the Accession of James II, 5 vols. (London, 1849–1861), 1: 305Google Scholar.

5 Ibid., 1: 301.

6 Ibid., 1: 302–04.

7 Ibid., 1: 304.

8 The Diary of Samuel Pepys, ed. Latham, Robert C. and Matthews, William, 11 vols. (Berkeley, 1970–1983), 8: 332 (12 July 1667)Google Scholar; A modest Inquiry into the Causes of the present Disasters in England, in A Collection of State Tracts, Published during the Reign of King William III, 3 vols. (n.p., 1706 [1690]), 2: 102–03Google Scholar; An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages (n.p., 1707), p. 4. For the social background of Interregnum sea officers, see Capp, Cromwell's Navy, pp. 175–79.

9 BL, Add. MSS 11602, ff. 38, 40. Different versions of this tract are printed in Charnock, John, An History of Marine Architecture, 3 vols. (London, 1800–1802), 1: lxxiv–xcvGoogle Scholar; and as “Reflections on our Naval Strength,” in The Naval Miscellany, vol. 2, ed. Laughton, J. K.Google Scholar, Navy Records Society, vol. 40 (n.p., 1912), pp. 149–68. For other examples of Gibson's views on gentleman captains, see his memorial to the king, 5 October 1693, in Private Correspondence and Miscellaneous Papers of Samuel Pepys, 1679–1703, ed. Tanner, J.R., 2 vols. (London, 1926), 1: 118–25Google Scholar; and Samuel Pepys's Naval Minutes, ed. Tanner, J. R., Navy Records Society, vol. 60 (n.p., 1926), pp. 26, 447–49Google Scholar.

10 The Present Condition of the English Navy (London, 1702), p. 5Google Scholar.

11 Ibid., pp. 7, 11.

12 Ibid.

13 Ibid., p. 12.

14 Ibid., p. 16.

15 Ibid., pp. 28–32.

16 An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages, pp. 13, 14. See also The Tangier Papers of Samuel Pepys, ed. Chappell, Edwin, Navy Records Society, vol. 73 (n.p., 1935), pp. 121, 150Google Scholar.

17 Slush, Barnaby, The Navy Royal: or a Sea-Cook turn'd Projector (London, 1709), pp. 94–95Google Scholar.

18 Remarks upon the Navy. The Second Part (n.p., 1700), p. 21Google Scholar.

19 An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages, p. 9.

20 Ibid., p. 13. See also Maydman, Henry, Naval Speculations, and Maritime Politicks: Being a Modest and Brief Discourse of the Royal Navy of England (London, 1691), pp. 217–22Google Scholar; [Hodges, William], Humble Proposals for the Relief, Encouragement, Security and Happiness of the Loyal, Couragious Seamen of England (n.p., 1695), pp. 46–47Google Scholar; [idem], Ruin to Ruin, After Misery to Misery (London, 1699), p. 19. Maydman was a purser; Hodges, a merchant with some knowledge of naval administration.

21 Barlow, Edward, Barlow's Journal, ed. Lubbock, Basil, 2 vols. (London, 1934), 2: 548Google Scholar.

22 An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages, pp. 8–9; [Dennis, John], An Essay on the Navy (London, 1702), p. 4Google Scholar; [Hodges, ], Humble Proposals, pp. 14–15Google Scholar; [idem], Ruin to Ruin, p. 31; An Historical and Political Treatise of the Navy (London, 1703), p. 14Google Scholar. For the changing attitude toward the Second Dutch War, contrast [Andrew Marvell], “The Second Advice to a Painter,” The Third Advice to a Painter,” and “The Last Instructions to a Painter,” with [Sir Henry Sheres], “A Long Prologue to a Short Play,” lines 87–100, and [Hodges, ], Ruin to Ruin, p. 14Google Scholar. The Marvell and Sheres poems may be found in Poems on Affairs of State: Augustan Satirical Verse, 1660–1714. Volume 1: 1660–1678, ed. deF. Lord, George (New Haven, 1963), pp. 36–53, 68–87, 99–139Google Scholar; and Volume 5: 1688–1697, ed. Cameron, William J. (New Haven, 1971), pp. 230–34Google Scholar.

23 Slush, The Navy Royal, preface; [Dennis, ], An Essay on the Navy, p. 7Google Scholar; [Hodges, ], Humble Proposals, p. 25Google Scholar.

24 Remarks upon the Navy, p. 22.

25 Ibid., p. 12. See also Slush, , The Navy Royal, pp. 27–30Google Scholar; An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages, pp. 16–17; Maydman, , Naval Speculations, pp. 156–228Google Scholar.

26 The State of the Navy Consider'd In relation to the Victualling (2nd ed.; London, 1699), p. 4Google Scholar. See also [Hodges, William], Great Britain's Groans (n.p., 1695), p. 25Google Scholar; and Pepys, , Tangier Papers, p. 173Google Scholar.

27 Remarks upon the Navy, p. 22.

28 Ibid., p. 14.

29 An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages, p. 10.

30 Remarks upon the Navy, p. 15. See also Slush, , The Navy Royal, p. 117Google Scholar.

31 Remarks upon the Navy, p. 22; [Hodges, ], Humble Proposals, p. 23Google Scholar.

32 Pepys, , Diary, 4: 169 (2 June 1663)Google Scholar.

33 Ibid., 3: 122 (27 June 1662).

34 ibid., 7: 212 (21 July 1666), 332–34 (20 October 1666).

35 Ibid., 7: 212 (21 July 1666); 8: 42 (3 February 1667); 9: 563 (30 May 1669).

36 Ibid., 7: 409 (16 December 1666); 8: 304 (29 June 1667).

37 Ibid, 7: 10 (10 January 1666). Pepys is here quoting the Duchess of Albemarle, but he clearly (and uncharacteristically) agreed with her. For other examples of Pepys's views on the jealousy and corruption of gentleman captains, see Tangier Papers, pp. 123, 214–15, 235; for his views on the superiority of tarpaulins, see ibid., pp. 106, 123–24, 135, 156, 217, 233–34.

38 Congreve, William, Love for Love (1695), act 3, sc. 7Google Scholar.

39 Ravenscroft, Edward, The Canterbury Guests; or, a Bargain Broken (1695), act 2, sc. 9Google Scholar; act 4, sc. 9.

40 Ibid., act 5, sc. 8. See also Pepys's comment on seamen and ladies in Tangier Papers, p. 166.

41 Wycherley, William, The Plain-Dealer (1676), act 1Google Scholar.

42 The Works of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax, ed. Brown, Mark N., 3 vols. (Oxford, 1989), 1: 298Google Scholar. This pamphlet was first published in May 1694. H. C. Foxcroft and J. P. Kenyon thought that it was written, at least in part, in the mid- 1660s, but Brown has shown that it was both begun and finished in 1693; see ibid., 1: 122–23.

43 Ibid., 1: 303–04.

44 Ibid., 1: 305–06. A similar argument (minus the foundation in political theory) was made by Sir William Monson and Nathaniel Butler early in the seventeenth century, but there is no evidence that Halifax was familiar with their writings. See The Naval Tracts of Sir William Monson, ed. Oppenheim, M., Navy Records Society, vols. 22, 23, 43, 45, 47, 5 vols. (n.p., 1902–1914), 3: 433–35Google Scholar; and Bottler's Dialogues, ed. Perrin, W. G., Navy Records Society, vol. 65 (n.p., 1929), pp. 2–7Google Scholar.

45 Pepys, , Diary, 2: 114 (4 June 1661)Google Scholar.

46 Pepys, Naval Minutes, p. 62Google Scholar. See also ibid., pp. 167–70, 196, 215, 230, 405–06.

47 Pepys, , Tangier Papers, pp. 109, 122Google Scholar; Pepys to Richard Rcoth, 24 January 1674, in Tanner, J. R., ed., A Descriptive Catalogue of the Naval Manuscripts in the Pepysian Library at Magdalen College, Cambridge, Navy Records Society, vols. 26, 27, 36, 57, 4 vols. (n.p., 1903–23), 2: 232Google Scholar; Pepys, to SirHolmes, John, 15 April 1679, in Further Correspondence of Samuel Pepys, 1662–1679, ed. Tanner, J. R. (London, 1929), p. 357Google Scholar.

48 The Present Condition of the English Navy, p. 26.

49 An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages, p. 9; Crosfeild, Robert, England's Glory Reviv'd (London, 1693), pp. 18–19Google Scholar; St. Lo, George, England's Safety: or, a Bridle to the French King, in A Collection of Scarce and Valuable Tracts [Somers Tracts], 13 vols. (2nd ed.; London, 1809–1815), 11: 68Google Scholar; An Historical and Political Treatise, p. 15. St. Lo was one of the few sea officers to join the pamphlet war.

50 Remarks upon the Navy, p. 22.

51 Slush, , The Navy Royal, pp. 8, 9Google Scholar.

52 Ibid., pp. 50–54.

53 Shadwell, Charles, The Fair Quaker of Deal, or. The Humours of the Navy (1710), act 1Google Scholar.

54 Ibid., act 5.

55 See, for example, the condemnations of fighting in line of battle in BL, Add. MSS 11602, f. 38, and The Present Condition of the English Navy, pp. 23–24; and the opposition to half pay and promotion by seniority in An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages, pp. 8–9, 13.

56 Holmes, Geoffrey, “The Professions and Social Change in England, 1680–1730,” Proceedings of the British Academy 65 (1979): 353Google Scholar.

57 For these eighteenth-century developments, see Baugh, Daniel A., British Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole (Princeton, 1965), ch. 3Google Scholar; and Rodger, Wooden World, ch. 7.