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³ I have chosen these approximate dates because they seem to mark out an epoch in British intellectual life. The period begins with the emergence of estheticism, modernism, modern academic disciplines, and the vocabulary of intellectuals in the late-Victorian years; and it ends with the flowering of Thatcherite anti-intellectualism and a revolution in information technology in the 1980s.

⁴ Wain, John, “Not a Profession but a Condition,” in Findlater, Richard, ed., Author! Author! (London, 1984), p. 301Google Scholar. Since they worked in the print medium, throughout this paper I define freelance or independent intellectuals as the men and women of letters who wrote for a relatively broad general audience to whom they were connected by a market for published works.

⁵ Gross, John, The Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters (London, 1969; 1991)Google Scholar.

⁶ Ibid, Chapter 11, “Epilogue.”

⁷ For these difficulties, see Findlater, Richard, The Book Writers: Who Are They? (London, 1966), pp. 6–7Google Scholar. As for the Census, there is no sure way to tell what proportion of the larger group given in the censuses were authors, and besides, the line between “authors” and “journalists” has never been absolutely clear. However, the most knowledgeable person, Richard Findlater, of the Society of Authors, estimated in 1962 that the number of authors stood at between 6,500 and 7,000. The 1961 census total for the group of authors, editors, and journalists was about 28,000; hence the proportion of authors was about 25% of the total. Applying that admittedly rough rule of thumb to the census figures for the century yields the figures in Table 1. See Findlater, , What Are Writers Worth? (London, 1963)Google Scholar; and Victor Bonham-Carter, Authors by Profession, 2 vols (London, 1978), 2:93.

⁸ For the number of academics, see Perkin, Harold, Key Profession, pp. 141, 160Google Scholar.

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¹¹ Vincent, David, Literacy and Popular Culture: England, 1750–1914 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 1–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Vincent shows that some older men and women, who did not have the advantages of the Education Acts of 1870 and 1880, sustained an element of illiteracy in England until the inter-war years (pp. 28–29).

¹² Mitchell, B. R., British Historical Statistics (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 805–09Google Scholar. The figures for intervening years were: in 1930, more than 545,000; in 1955, more than 2.1 million. All of these figures exclude Ireland and Northern Ireland.

¹³ Ibid., pp. 811–13; and Central Statistical Office (UK), Regional Trends (London, 1983), p. 76Google Scholar. Figures exclude Northern Ireland.

¹⁴ Butler, David and Butler, Gareth, British Political Facts, 1900–1985 (New York, 1986), pp. 494, 499CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Laing, Stuart, “The Production of Literature,” in Sinfield, Alan, ed., Society and Literature, 1945–1970 (London, 1983), p. 130Google Scholar.

¹⁵ McAleer, Joseph, Popular Reading and Publishing in Britain, 1914–1950 (Oxford, 1982), pp. 23–25Google Scholar.

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¹⁷ These figures are derived from a careful examination of the lists of magazines and journals in The Writers' and Artists' Yearbook for 1922 and 1980.

¹⁸ Sources for numbers of books published: Whitaker's Almanac; Michael Lane, Books and Publishers: Commerce against Culture in Postwar Britain (Lexington, Mass., 1980), p. 2Google Scholar; and Mumby, F. A. and Norrie, Ian, Publishing and Bookselling (5th ed.; London, 1974), Appendix A, pp. 569–71Google Scholar. The population figures include Ireland down to 1921, and Northern Ireland thereafter.

¹⁹ For newspapers, see Seymour-Ure, Colin, The British Press and Broadcasting since 1945 (Oxford, 1991), pp. 27–33Google Scholar.

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²¹ Mann, Peter, From Author to Reader: A Social Study of Books (London, 1982), p. 9Google Scholar.

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²³ Kelly, Thomas, A History of Public Libraries in Great Britain, 1845–1965 (London, 1973), pp. 380–82Google Scholar. Of course, many readers read both “serious” and “light” fiction; the audiences for the two were never entirely separate.

²⁴ McAleer, , Popular Reading and Publishing, pp. 71, 89–90, 94Google Scholar.

²⁵ Mann, , From Author to Reader, p. 170Google Scholar.

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²⁸ Quoted in Carey, John, The Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939 (London, 1992), p. 7Google Scholar.

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³⁰ Quoted in Coates, John, Chesterton and the Edwardian Cultural Crisis (Hull, 1984), p. 55Google Scholar. See also Chesterton, , “A Defence of Penny Dreadfuls,” in The Defendant (new ed.; London, n.d.)Google Scholar; and “The Case for the Ephemeral,” in All Things Considered (10th ed.; London, 1916)Google Scholar.

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³⁵ Shayer, Teaching of English, ch. 4–5; Williams, The Long Revolution, pt. 2, ch. 1.

³⁶ Department of Education and Science, A Language for Life: Report of the Committee of Inquiry under the Chairmanship of Sir Allan Bullock, F.B.A. (London, 1975)Google Scholar. See also: Smart, K. B. and Wells, B. K., The Trend of Reading Standards, 1970–71 (London, 1972)Google Scholar.

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³⁸ McAleer, , Popular Reading and Publishing, pp. 244–45Google Scholar.

³⁹ The best analysis of the content of the popular press is still Hoggart's, RichardThe Uses of Literacy (New York, 1970), especially ch. 6 and 7Google Scholar; though it has been criticized as elitist by LeMahieu, Daniel, A Culture for Democracy: Mass Communication and the Cultivated Mind in Britain between the Wars (Oxford, 1988), especially ch. 1 and 2Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Hoggart, , The Uses of Literacy, p. 154Google Scholar; Mass Observation found the same thing in 1940: McAleer, , Popular Reading and Publishing, p. 7Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Bonham-Carter, , Authors by Profession, 2:145Google Scholar.

⁴² For an insider's view of the job of literary editor, see Curtis, Anthony, Lit Ed: on Reviewing and Reviewers (Manchester, 1998)Google Scholar.

⁴³ Ibid., ch. 3.

⁴⁴ Reed, David, The Popular Magazine in Britain and the United States, 1880–1960 (London, 1997), pp. 87–88Google Scholar; McAleer, , Popular Reading and Publishing, pp. 19–24Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Reed, The Popular Magazine, ch. 5.

⁴⁶ Gross, , Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters, pp. 243–47Google Scholar. For the TLS, see Curtis, Lit Ed, ch. 9; the interview with Hamilton, Ian in Firchow, , ed., The Writer's Place, pp. 154–62Google Scholar; and May, Derwent, Critical Times: The History of the Times Literary Supplement (London 2000), chs. 1-2Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ McAleer, , Popular Reading and Publishing, pp. 65–67Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ Sinfield, , ed., Society and Literature, 1945–1970, p. 133Google Scholar; and interview with Lasky, Melvin in Firchow, , ed., The Writer's Place, pp. 224–38Google Scholar. See also: Coleman, Peter, The Liberal Conspiracy: the Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe (New York, 1989)Google Scholar; and Saunders, Frances Stonor, Who Paid the Piper: the CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London, 1999)Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ The figure for the 1920s and 1930s is from McAleer, , Popular Reading and Publishing, p. 47Google Scholar; earlier numbers can be seen in the lists in the monthly Bookseller and the annual Writers' and Artists' Yearbook.

⁵⁰ The nomenclature is from Feltes, N. N., Literary Capital and the Late-Victorian Novel (Madison, Wisc., 1993), pp. 18–20Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Ibid., ch. 2.

⁵² The story is told by Warburg, Frederic in his Occupation for a Gentleman (London, 1959), pp. 89–90Google Scholar.

⁵³ Griest, Guinevere, Mudie's Circulating Library and the Victorian Novel (Bloomington, 1970)Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Mumby, and Norrie, , Publishing and Bookselling, pp. 288, 379Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Ibid, pp. 242–45.

⁵⁶ See Bonham-Carter, Authors by Profession, 1:ch. 10.

⁵⁷ Besant, Walter, et al, The Grievances between Authors and Publishers (London, 1887)Google Scholar. See also Bonham-Carter, , Authors by Profession, 1:133–34Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Quoted in Findlater, , ed., Author! Author!, p. 108Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ The label is from Frederic Warburg's autobiography, An Occupation for Gentlemen. Michael Lane calls them “traditional” publishers in his excellent Books and Publishers: Commerce against Culture in Postwar Britain.

⁶⁰ Woolf, Leonard, Downhill All the Way: An Autobiography of the Years 1919–1939 (London, 1967), p. 159Google Scholar; Joseph, Richard, Michael Joseph: Master of Words (Southampton, 1986), p. 127Google Scholar. See also Hayes, Michael, “Popular Fiction, 1930–1955,” in Day, Gary, ed., Literature and Culture (London, 1997), p.71Google Scholar.

⁶¹ Warburg, , Occupation for Gentlemen, pp. 199, 280Google Scholar.

⁶² T. S. Eliot was published by Faber & Gwyer, Faber and Faber, and Hogarth; D. H. Lawrence by Martin Seeker and Duckworth; Wyndham Lewis by Chatto & Windus; James Joyce by Egoist Press, Faber and Faber, and John Lane; and Virginia Woolf by Hogarth.

⁶³ For discussions of the list publishers and their goals between the Wars, see: Joseph, , Michael Joseph, pp. 127, 202–03Google Scholar; Lane, Books and Publishers, ch. 2, 4; and Stuart Laing, “The Production of Literature,” in Sinfield, ed., Society and Literature, ch. 5.

⁶⁴ Warburg, , Occupation for a Gentlemen, p. 191Google Scholar; Joseph, , Michael Joseph, pp. 141–42Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Sutherland, J. A., Fiction and the Fiction Industry (London, 1978), pp. 86–88Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Joseph, , Michael Joseph, p. 58Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ McGuigan, , Writers and the Arts Council, p. 20Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Estimates varied, but roughly speaking, before 1939 a publisher needed to sell only about 500 books of a printing of 1,000 to make a profit; but after World War II it would require selling 1,800 of 2,000, and by the 1960s over 2,000 sales were required. McAleer, , Popular Reading and Publishing, pp. 51–54Google Scholar; see also the remarks by Johnson, Pamela Hansford in Firchow, , ed., The Writer's Place, p. 209Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ There are a number of excellent analyses of troubles in the book publishing industry between 1960 and 1980; see: Mann, From Author to Reader, Lane, Books and Publishers; and Sutherland, Fiction and the Fiction Industry.

⁷⁰ Kelly, , History of Public Libraries, pp. 343–44Google Scholar; Sutherland, , Fiction and the Fiction Industry, pp. 6–7Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Kelly, , History of Public Libraries, p. 343Google Scholar.

⁷² Sutherland, , Fiction and the Fiction Industry, p. 12Google Scholar.

⁷³ Ibid, p. 23; Firchow, , ed., The Writer's Place, p. 254Google Scholar; Hoffman, Eva, “The Super Bowl of Fiction,” New York Times Book Review, 11. 26, 1995, p. 35Google Scholar. Todd, Richard, Consuming Fictions: The Booker Prize and Fiction in Britain Today (London, 1996), pp. 55–56Google Scholar. The sales impact of the Booker prize escalated in the 1980s, and it has often been said that winning the Booker Prize increased sales by between 40,000 and 80,000. See Todd, , Consuming Fictions, p. 19 and ch. 3Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ For the U.S.A., see Epstein, Jason, “The Rattle of Pebbles,” New York Review of Books, 04 27, 2000, pp. 55–59Google Scholar.

⁷⁵ Sinfield, , ed., Society and Literature, p. 124Google Scholar; Mumby, and Norrie, , Publishing and Bookselling, 2:ch. 5, 6Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Quoted in Lane, , Books and Publishing, p. 54Google Scholar. See ch. 6, “Changing Times”.

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⁷⁹ Sutherland, , Fiction and the Fiction Industry, pp. 10–12Google Scholar; Mann, , From Author to Reader, pp. 87–88Google Scholar; Lane, , Books and Publishers, p. 117Google Scholar.

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⁸¹ Bradbury, Malcolm, No, Not Bloomsbury (London, 1987), p. 325Google Scholar.

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⁸⁸ Gross, , Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters, p. 154Google Scholar.

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⁹⁷ Ibid., 2:145. For comparison, The New Statesman, notorious among writers for its low pay, gave only ten guineas per thousand words in 1952 and eighteen in 1967; the TLS paid only seven guineas in 1952 and ten in 1967.

⁹⁸ In Findlater, , ed., Author! Author!, p. 51Google Scholar.

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¹⁰⁴ Quoted in Atkins, , Priestley: Last of the Sages, p. 2Google Scholar.

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¹¹⁶ Altick, , “Sociology of Authorship,” p. 401Google Scholar.

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¹¹⁹ Priestley, , Midnight on the Desert (London, 1937), pp. 215–16Google Scholar.

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¹²¹ Mainly teaching English literature rather than creative writing, which most regarded as unteachable.

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¹²⁵ Burton, S. H., “Don't Let It Get You Down: Some Birthday Thoughts,” in Findlater, , ed., Author! Author!, p. 47Google Scholar. See also Pritchett, V. S., A Cab at the Door (New York, 1968), p. 252Google Scholar.

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¹²⁹ Bonham-Carter, , Authors by Profession, 2:120–25Google Scholar. Likewise, an attempt to form a writers' cooperative in 1969 quickly failed. See Laing, , “The Production of Literature,” in Sinfield, , ed., Society and Literature, 1945–1970, p. 167Google Scholar.

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