Article contents
Dybbuk and Maggid: Two Cultural Patterned of Altered Consciousness in Judaism
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 October 2009
Extract
For many years scholars of Judaism were reluctant to employ the analytic tools distilled in anthropology for studying Jewish culture. One reason for this reluctance was that the classical ethnographic field, consisting of a small-scale tribal society with no written tradition, did not appear pertinent to the study of the text-informed “great tradition“ of Judaism. In addition, the notion of comparative research implicit in most anthropological studies appeared dubious to many scholars of Judaism, who were alarmed by the sweeping, methodologically unfounded comparisons evident in the treatment of biblical material by such precursors of modern anthropology as Robertson Smith and Frazer.1 This methodological consideration was augmented by an emotional unwillingness to equate the “primitive’ religious systems of “savage’ societies with concepts and rituals pertaining to the oldest monotheistic religion.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © Association for Jewish Studies 1996
References
1. Frazer, J. G., Folklore in the Old Testament (London: Macmillan, 1919);Google ScholarSmith, William Robertson, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (1889; reprint ed., New York: Meridian Books, 1927).Google Scholar
2. Eilberg-Schwartz, Howard, The Savage in Judaism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990)Google Scholar; Goldberg, Harvey E., ed., Judaism Viewed from Within and from Without: Anthropological Perspectives (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987);Google Scholar, idem, “Anthropology and the Study of Traditional Jewish Society,’ AJS Review 15 (1990): 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3. The most well known exponent of the culture-as-text paradigm is Clifford Geertz. See his now classic collection of essays, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973); see also Goldberg, “Anthropology and the Study of Traditional Jewish Society,’ p. 5.Google Scholar
4. Idel, Moshe, Kabbalah: New Perspectives (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988)Google Scholar; Yehuda, Liebes, “New Directions in the Study of Kabbalah,’ Pe′amim 50 (1992): 150–170 (Heb.).Google Scholar
5. Bock, Philip K., Continuities in Psychological Anthropology (San Francisco: Freeman, 1980)Google Scholar; Erika, Bourguignon, Psychological Anthropology (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1979).Google Scholar
6. Roy, D′Andrade and Claudia, Strauss, eds., Human Motives and Cultural Models (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)Google Scholar; Gananath, Obeyesekere, Medusa's Hair (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980)Google Scholar; Spiro, Melford E., Collective Representation and Mental Representations in Religious Meaning Systems,“ in Culture and Human Nature, ed. Langness, L. L. and Benjamin, Kilborne (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), pp. 161184.Google Scholar
7. John, Leavitt, “Are Trance and Possession Disorders?” Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review 30 (1993): 51–57Google Scholar; Ward, Collean A., “The Cross-Cultural Study of Altered States of Consciousness and Mental Health,” in Altered States of Consciousness and Mental Health, ed. Ward, Collean A. (London: Sage Publications, 1989), pp. 15–35.Google Scholar
8. Erika, Bourguignon, ed., Religion, Altered States of Consciousness, and Social Change (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1973)Google Scholar; , idem, Possession (Corta Madera, Calif.: Chandler & Sharp, 1976).Google Scholar
9. , Bourguignon, ed., Psychological Anthropology, p. 243.Google Scholar
10. This division is roughly parallel to possession and shamanism. See Luc De, Heusch, Why Marry Her? Society and Symbolic Structures (London: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 151–164.Google Scholar
11. Crapanzano, Vincent, introduction to Case Studies in Spirit Possession, ed. Vincent, Crapanzano and Vivian, Garrison (New York: John Wiley, 1977), pp. 1–40.Google Scholar
12. Larnbek, Michael, “From Disease to Discourse: Remarks on the Conceptualization of Trance and Spirit Possession,” in Ward, Altered States of Consciousness, pp. 36–61.Google Scholar
13. I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religion: Anthropological Study of Spirit and Shamanism (Baltimore: Penguin, 1971).
14. See Heusch, De, Why Marry Her, p. 152.Google Scholar
15. Greenbaum, Leora, “Societal Correlates of Possession Trance in Sub-Saharan Africa,” in Bourguignon, Religion, Altered States of Consciousness, and Social Change, pp. 39–57. Also see Lewis, Ecstatic Religion.Google Scholar
16. Barry, Herbert III, Child, Irvine L., and Bacon, Margaret K., “Religion of Child Training to Subsistence Economy,” American Anthropologist 61 (1959): 51–63Google Scholar; Swanson, Guy E., “The Search for a Guardian Spirit: A Process of Empowerment in Simpler Societies,” Enthnology 12 (1973): 359–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17. D′Andrade, Roy G., “Anthropological Studies of Dreams,’ in Psychological Anthropology, ed. Hsu, Francis L. K. (Homewood, III.: Dorsey, 1961), pp. 296–332.Google Scholar
18. Bilu, Yoram, “The Taming of the Deviants and Beyond: A Psychocultural Analysis of Dybbuk Possession and Exorcism in Judaism,’ Psychoanalytic Study of Society 11 (1985): 1–32.Google Scholar
19. Ludwig, Arnold M., “Altered States of Consciousness,’ in Altered States of Consciousness, ed. Tart, Charles T. (New York: Anchor Books, 1972), pp. 11–24.Google Scholar
20. See , Bourguignon, Psychological Anthropology, pp. 233–269.Google Scholar
21. Since with only a few exceptions, the spirits belonged to male sinners, I use masculine pronouns in discussing them. Feminine pronouns are used to describe the possessed, given the predominance of females in this group.
22. See Bilu, “Taming of the Deviants,’ pp. 16–20; Gedalyah, Nigal, Dybbuk Tales in Jewish Literature (Jerusalem: Rubin Mass, 1983) (Heb.).Google Scholar
23. Scholem, Gershom, , s.v. “Gilgul,’ Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971), vol. 7, cols. 573–577.Google Scholar
24. Dan, Joseph, , s.v. “Maggid,’ Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971), vol. 11, cols. 699–701.Google Scholar
25. According to various sources from the seventeenth century, Sefer ha-Meshiv (“The Book of the Responding [Entity]’), a famous mystical compilation of maggidic revelations and the techniques to obtain them, was written by Taytazak. See Idel, Moshe, “Inquiries in the Doctrine of Sefer ha-Meshiv’ Sefiinot 17 (1983): 185–266 (Heb.)Google Scholar; Scholem, Gershom, Kabbalah (Jerusalem: Keter, 1974), p. 67.Google Scholar
26. Werblowsky, R. J. Zwi, Joseph Karo: Lawyer and Mystic (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1977).Google Scholar
27. Scholem, Gershom, Sabbatai Sevi (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973), pp. 645–647.Google Scholar
28. Benayahu, Meir, “The Maggid of R. Moses Hayyim Luzzatto,’ Sefunot 5 (1961); 297–336 (Heb.).Google Scholar
29. Idel, Moshe, “Jewish Magic from the Early Renaissance Period to Early Hasidism,’ in Religion, Science, and Magic, ed. Jacob, Neusner, Frerichs, Ernest S., and Flesher, Paul V. M. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 108.Google Scholar
30. , Werblowsky, Joseph Karo, pp. 19–21.Google Scholar
31. , Nigal, Dybbuk Tales, p. 65.Google Scholar
32. Scholem, Gershom, Researches in Sabbateanism (Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1991), p. 575 (Heb.).Google Scholar
33. Liebes, Yehuda, “The Author of the Book Tsaddik Yesod Olam The Sabbatean Prophet Rabbi Leib Prossnitz,’ Da at 2 (1978–1979): 159–174 (Heb.)Google Scholar
34. , Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 82. The italicized final sentence of the quoted passage does not appear in the English version of Scholem's book and was translated from the Hebrew original.Google Scholar
35. , Idel, “Jewish Magic,’ pp. 107–108.Google Scholar
36. , Ludwig, “Altered States of Consciousness,’ pp. 12–14.Google Scholar
37. , Idel, “Jewish Magic,’ p. 107.Google Scholar
38. Quoted in Werblowsky, Joseph Karo, p. 80.
39. Ibid, p. 81.
40. Ibid, p. 79.
41. Ibid, p. 260.
42. Ibid, p. 21.
43. , Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 897.Google Scholar
44. , Idel, “Inquiries,’ pp. 220–221.Google Scholar
45. Ibid, p. 221.
46. , Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 206. Seeing the speech is not a case of synesthesia (fusion of sense modalities). The prophet is imagined to see in a three–dimensional form the letters from which the words of the prophecy are composed.Google Scholar
47. , Weiblowsky, Joseph Karo, pp. 78–79.Google Scholar
48. Ibid, p. 258.
49. , Idel, “Inquiries,’ p. 222.Google Scholar
50. , Werblowsky, Joseph Karo, p. 41.Google Scholar
51. , Idel, “Inquiries,’ p. 204.Google Scholar
52. , Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 897; Benayahu, “Maggid of Luzzatto.’Google Scholar
53. , Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, 897.Google Scholar
54. Ibid.
55. , Idel, “Inquiries,’ p. 189.Google Scholar
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid, p. 190.
58. Ibid.
59. Some mystical techniques for inducing prophecy included an elaborate multisensory system encompassing visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, and gustatory sensations. See Idel, Moshe, The Mystical Experience in Abraham Abulafia (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1988), pp. 33–34 (Heb.).Google Scholar
60. , Idel, “Inquiries,’ p. 219.Google Scholar
61. , Benayahu, “Maggid of Luzzatto.’Google Scholar
62. , Werblowsky, Joseph Karo, p. 23.Google Scholar
63. Ibid, p. 270.
64. , Idel, Abraham Abulafia, pp. 15–42.Google Scholar
65. , Idel, “Inquiries,’ pp. 201–218.Google Scholar
66. , Benayahu, “Maggid of Luzzatto,’ p. 307.Google Scholar
67. , Werblowsky, Joseph Karo, p. 98.Google Scholar
68. Ibid, p. 285.
69. Ibid, p. 50.
70. Ginzberg, Louis, The Legends of the Jews (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1913), vol. 4, p. 215.Google Scholar
71. , Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 420.Google Scholar
72. I have been able to locate only one case of a woman who had maggidic revelations. This woman, La Francesa, lived in Safed at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and amazed the town's sages by her ability to foretell the future. Hirschberg, H. Z., “The Author of Divrey Kwef and His Attitude Toward the Duty of Settling in Eretz Israel,“ in Sefer Shazar (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1971), pp. 132–137 (Heb.).Google Scholar
73. , Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 423.Google Scholar
74. Ozer, Leib Ben, The Story of Sabbatai Sevi (Jerusalem: Zalman Shazar Center, 1978),Google Scholar
74. Ozer, Leib Ben, The Story of Sabbatai Sevi (Jerusalem: Zalman Shazar Center, 1978), pp. 59–60 (Heb.).Google Scholar
75. Quoted in Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 423.
76. Bilu, Yoram, “The Moroccan Demon in Israel: The Case of Evil Spirit Disease,’ Ethos 8 (1980): 24–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77. , Lewis, Ecstatic Religion, p. 127.Google Scholar
- 9
- Cited by