Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 November 2008
It is currently the vogue to speak of development throughout life. It is here argued that epigenetic models of human development are unsuited to explaining psycho-social change in old age. An alternative model of the emergence of psycho-social change in old age is proposed. An indication is given of why such change should occur, and the argument is illustrated with two catastrophe models of change, one hypothetical, and another describing events in the life of the composer Sibelius. These models indicate how role loss and modernization could have a causal role in psycho-social change. It is then argued that under prevailing social conditions emergent change could take the form of an ‘inner journey’ in old age. It is concluded that it is time to re-assess the use of developmental models of change in old age.
1 Lowenthal, M. F., ‘Towards a Sociopsychological Theory of Change in Adulthood and Old Age’, Chapter 6 in Birren, J. E. and Schaie, K. W. (eds), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1977.Google Scholar
2 Swartz, J. D., ‘From the Womb to the Tomb: the Current Approach in Devel-opmental Psychology’, Journal of Biological Psychology, 21, 1979, pp. 46–9.Google Scholar
3 Kastenbaum, R., Humans Developing: a Life Span Approach, Allyn-Bacon, Boston, 1979.Google Scholar
4 Kimmel, D., Adulthood and Aging, Wiley, New York, 1974.Google Scholar
5 Lugo, J. O. and Hershey, G. L., Human Development: a Psychological, Biological and Sociological Approach to the Life Span, Macmillan, New York, 1979.Google Scholar
6 de Beauvoir, S., La Viellesse, Gallimard, Paris, 1970.Google Scholar
7 Drever, J., A Dictionary of Psychology, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1952.Google Scholar
8 Erikson, E., Childhood and Society, Hogarth, London, 1965.Google Scholar
9 Kohlberg, L., ‘Stage and Sequence’, Chapter in Goslin, D. (ed.), Handbook of Socialisation Theory and Research, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1969.Google Scholar
10 Piaget, J., ‘Psychology and Philosophy’, Chapter in Wolman, B. B. (ed.), Scientific Psychology, Basic Books, New York, 1965.Google Scholar
11 Loevinger, J., ‘The Meaning and Measurement of Ego Development’, American Psychologist, 21, 1966, pp. 195–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12 Cumming, E. and Henry, W. E., Growing Old: the Process of Disengagement, Basic Books, New York, 1961.Google Scholar
13 Hochschild, A. R., ‘Disengagement Theory: a Critique and Proposal’, American Sociological Review, 40, 1975, pp. 553–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14 Kitchener, R. F., ‘Epigenesis: the Role of Biological Models in Developmental Psychology’, Human Development, 21, 1978, pp. 141–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15 Bonner, J. T., Size and Cycle, Princeton University Press, 1965.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16 Fishbein, H. D., Evolution, Development, and Children's Learning, Goodyear, Santa Monica, 1976.Google Scholar
17 Waddington, C. H., The Nature of Life, George Allen and Unwin, London, 1963.Google Scholar
18 Bertanalaffy, L. von, Problems of Life, Watts, 1952.Google Scholar
19 Kohlberg, L., ‘Stages and Aging in moral development’, The Gerontologist 13, 1973, 497–502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20 Kurtines, W. and Grief, E., ‘The Development of Moral Thought: Review and Evaluation of Kohlberg's Approach’, Psychological Bulletin, 81, 1974, 453–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21 Braun, C. M. J. and Baribeau, J. M. C., ‘Subjective Idealism in Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: a Critical Analysis’, Human Development, 21, pp. 129–41.Google Scholar
22 Simpson, E. L., ‘Moral Development Research: a Case study in Scientific Cultural Bias’, Human Development, 18, 1975, 50–64.Google Scholar
23 Sullivan, E. V. ‘A Study of Kohlberg's Structural Theory of Moral Development: a Critique of Liberal Social Science Ideology’, Human Development, 20, 1977, pp. 352–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24 Kohlberg, L., ‘The Child as Moral Philosopher’, Psychology Today, 2, 1968, pp. 25–30.Google Scholar
25 Bower, T. G. R., Human Development, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1979.Google Scholar
26 Riegel, K. F. and Riegel, R. M., ‘Development, Drop and Death’, Developmental Psychology, 6, 1977, pp. 306–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27 Berrill, N. J., Biology in action, Heinemann, London, 1967.Google Scholar
28 Vygotsky, L. S., Unpublished notes quoted in El'konin, D. B., ‘Towards the Problem of Stages in the Mental Development of the Child’, Chapter in Soviet Psychology, (ed.) Cole, M. Sharpe, 1977.Google Scholar
29 Medawar, P., Chapter in Ayala, F. J. and Dobzansky, T. (eds), Studies in the Philosophy of Biology, Macmillan, London, 1974.Google Scholar
30 Thompson, D'Arcy, On Growth and Form, Cambridge University Press, 1942.Google Scholar
31 Koestler, A., The Act of Creation, Hutchinson, London, 1964.Google Scholar
32 Michel, G. F. and Moore, C. L., Biological Perspectives in Developmental Psychology, Brooks Cole, 1978.Google Scholar
33 Kierkegaard, S., The Sickness unto Death, Oxford University Press, 1944.Google Scholar
34 Kahn, J. H., Job's Illness, Pergamon, London, 1976.Google Scholar
35 Riegel, K. F., ‘Dialectic Operations: the Final Period of Cognitive Development’, Human Development, 16, 1973, pp. 346–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36 Flavell, J., Chapter in Goulet, L. R. and Baltes, (eds), Life Span Developmental Psychology: Research and Theory, Academic Press, New York, 1970.Google Scholar
37 Neugarten, B. L., ‘Time, Age and the Life Cycle’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 136: 7, 1979, pp. 887–94.Google ScholarPubMed
38 Riegel, K. F., ‘Influence of Economic and Political Ideologies on the Development of Developmental psychology’, Psychological Bulletin, 78, 1972, pp. 129–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39 Jung, C. G., ‘The Undiscovered Self’, in the collected collected works, vol. 10, Civilisation in Transition, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1964.Google Scholar
40 Jung, C. G., ‘The Stages of Life’, in the collected works, vol. 8, The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1964.Google Scholar
41 Jung, C. G., On the Nature of the Psyche, Bollingen, Princeton, 1960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
42 Shakespeare, W., King Lear.Google Scholar
43 Berger, P. L., Facing up to Modernity, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1979.Google Scholar
44 Thorn, R., Chapter in Waddington, C. (ed.), Towards a Theoretical Biology 4, Edinburgh U.P., 1972.Google Scholar
45 Thom, R., Structural Stability and Morphogenesis, Benjamin, 1975.Google Scholar
46 Zeeman, E. C., ‘Catastrophe Theory’, Scientific American, 234, 1976, pp. 65–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47 McCulloch, A. W., A Positive Approach to Psycho-Social Change in Old Age, Paper given at the annual conference of the British Psychological Society, Social Section, Guildford, 1979.Google Scholar
48 Clayton, V., ‘Erikson's Theory of Human Development as it Applies to the Aged: Wisdom as Contradictive Cognition’, Human Development, 18, 1975, pp. 119–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49 Needham, J., ‘The Biologist's View of Whitehead’, in Schilpp, P. A. (ed.), The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, Northwestern University Press, 1941.Google Scholar
50 Heim, A., Intelligence and Personality, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1970.Google Scholar
51 Stewart, I., ‘The Seven Elementary Catastrophes’, New Scientist, 1975, pp. 447–54.Google Scholar
52 Groves Music Dictionary.
53 Parmet, S., The Symphonies of Sibelius, Cassell, London, 1959.Google Scholar
54 Whittal, A., ‘Sibelius’ 8th Symphony’, The Music Review, 25, 1964, p. 117.Google Scholar
55 Waterhouse, J. C. G., ‘Sibelius and the Twentieth Century’, Musical Times, 106, 1965, pp. 939–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56 Merriam, S., ‘The Concept and Function of Reminiscence: a Review of the Research’, The Gerontologist, 20, 1980, pp. 604–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
57 Neugarten, B. L. and assoc., Personality in Middle and Late Life, Atherton, New York, 1964.Google Scholar
58 Neugarten, B. L. (ed.), Middle Age and Aging, University of Chicago Press, 1968.Google ScholarPubMed
59 Gould, R., Transformations, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1978.Google Scholar
60 Miller, L., ‘Toward a Classification of Aging Behaviours’, The Gerontologist, 9, 1979, pp. 283–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61 Levinson, D. J. et al. , The Seasons of a Man's Life, Knopf, New York, 1978.Google Scholar
62 Butler, R., ‘The Life Review: an Interpretation of Reminiscence in Old Age’, Psychiatry, 26, 1963, 65–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
63 Coleman, P., The Role of the Past in Adaptation to Old Age, University of London Ph.D. thesis, 1972.Google Scholar
64 Havighurst, R. J., ‘History of Developmental Psychology’, Chapter in Life Span Developmental Psychology: Personality and Socialization, (eds) Bakes, P. B. and Schaie, , Academic Press, New York, 1973.Google Scholar
65 Sheehy, G., Passages, E. P. Dutton, New York, 1974.Google Scholar
66 Nicholson, J., Seven Ages, Fontana, London, 1980.Google Scholar