Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T06:42:46.617Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Parents' preferred care-givers in rural China: gender, migration and intergenerational exchanges

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 December 2012

ZHEN CONG  and
MERRIL SILVERSTEIN
ZHEN CONG*
Affiliation:
Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA.
MERRIL SILVERSTEIN
Affiliation:
Maxwell School Department of Sociology and Falk College School of Social Work, Syracuse University, Syracuse, USA.
*
Address for correspondence: Zhen Cong, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Texas Tech University, P.O. Box 41230, Lubbock, TX 79409-1230, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study examines how intergenerational exchanges affect elders' choice of preferred care-givers in the case of sickness among adult children in rural China. The sample derived from a four-wave longitudinal study in Anhui Province, China, based on which we constructed three time intervals (i.e. 2001–2003, 2003–2006 and 2006–2009) and stacked them. Our working sample included 10,181 observations from these three stacked intervals, representing 4,927 children with 1,170 elder parents. We used fixed-effects logistic regression to predict elders' favouritism among their children. Results show that those children who received more help with grandchild care from parents, who provided instrumental support to parents and whose spouses provided instrumental support to parents were more likely to be named the preferred care-givers. On average, parents favoured sons. For mothers, this favouritism was completely explained by proximity and intergenerational exchanges, and even reversed under certain circumstances. For fathers, this favouritism of sons was partially explained by proximity and intergenerational exchanges. Migrant children were less likely to be preferred care-givers. This effect was moderated by elder parents' help with caring for grandchildren. Particularly, mothers favoured daughters over sons if the above moderation effect was considered. We discuss these findings in the context of social changes including increased importance of daughters in elder parents' support networks and the large-scale rural to urban migration.

Keywords

preferred care-giverscare-givingChinafilial pietyintergenerational supportlongitudinal analysis
Type
Articles
Information
Ageing & Society , Volume 34 , Issue 5 , May 2014 , pp. 727 - 752
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allison, P. D. 2001. Missing Data. Sage, Thousand Oaks, California.Google Scholar
Alwin, D. F. 1996. Coresidence beliefs in American society, 1973 to 1991. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 2, 393–403.Google Scholar
Antonucci, T. C., Akiyama, H. and Birditt, K. 2004. Intergenerational exchange in the United States and Japan. In Silverstein, M. and Schaie, K. W. (eds), Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics: Focus on Intergenerational Relations Across Time and Place. Volume 24, Springer, New York, 224–48.Google Scholar
Bai, N. and Song, H. 2002. Return or Stay: The Return Flow of Out-migrants from Rural China. China Finance and Economy Press, Beijing. (In Chinese)Google Scholar
Bélanger, D. and Li, X. 2009. Agricultural land, gender and kinship in rural China and Vietnam: a comparison of two villages. Journal of Agrarian Change, 9, 2, 204–30.Google Scholar
Brown, P. H. and Theoharides, C. 2009. Health-seeking behavior and hospital choice in China's new cooperative medical system. Health Economics, 18, S2, S47–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, R. P. C. and Poirine, B. 2005. A model of migrants' remittances with human capital investment and intrafamilial transfers. International Migration Review, 39, 2, 407–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calasanti, T. 2004. Feminist gerontology and old men. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 59B, 6, S305–14.Google Scholar
Cantor, M. H. 1991. Family and community: changing roles in an aging society. Gerontologist, 31, 3, 337–46.Google Scholar
Chaohu Statistical Bureau 2001. Chaohu Statistical Annals. Chaohu Statistical Bureau, Chaohu, China.Google Scholar
Chappell, N. L. and Kusch, K. 2007. The gendered nature of filial piety: a study among Chinese Canadians. Journal of Cross-cultural Gerontology, 22, 1, 29–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Checkovich, T. J. and Stern, S. 2002. Shared caregiving responsibilities of adult siblings with elderly parents. The Journal of Human Resources, 37, 3, 441–78.Google Scholar
Cheng, S. and Chan, A. C. M. 2006. Filial piety and psychological well-being in well older Chinese. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 61B, 5, P262–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
China Research Center on Aging 2003. Data Analysis of the Sampling of Survey of the Aged Population in China. China Biaozhun Publication, Beijing.Google Scholar
Chou, K. L. and Chi, I. 2004. Childlessness and psychological well-being in Chinese older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19, 5, 449–57.Google Scholar
Chou, R. J. A. 2010. Willingness to live in eldercare institutions among older adults in urban and rural China: a nationwide study. Ageing & Society, 30, 4, 583–608.Google Scholar
Chou, R. J. A. 2011. Filial piety by contract: the emergence, implementation, and implications of the ‘Family Support Agreement’ in China. The Gerontologist, 51, 1, 3–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicirelli, V. G. 1993. Attachment and obligation as daughters' motives for caregiving behavior and subsequent effect on subjective burden. Psychology and Aging, 8, 2, 144–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, M. L. 1998. North China rural families changes during the communist era. Etudes Chinoises, 17, 1/2, 59–154.Google Scholar
Cong, Z. and Silverstein, M. 2008 a. Intergenerational support and depression among elders in rural China: do daughters-in-law matter? Journal of Marriage and Family, 70, 3, 599–612.Google Scholar
Cong, Z. and Silverstein, M. 2008 b. Intergenerational time-for-money exchanges in rural China: does reciprocity reduce depressive symptoms of older grandparents? Research in Human Development, 5, 1, 6–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cong, Z. and Silverstein, M. 2011 a. Custodian grandparents and intergenerational support in rural China. In Mehta, K. K. and Thang, L. L. (eds), Experiencing Grandparenthood: An Asian Perspective. Springer, New York, 109–27.Google Scholar
Cong, Z. and Silverstein, M. 2011 b. Intergenerational exchange between parents and migrant and nonmigrant sons in rural China. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73, 1, 93–104.Google Scholar
Cong, Z. and Silverstein, M. 2011 c. Parents' depressive symptoms and support from sons and daughters in rural China. International Journal of Social Welfare, 20, special issue, S4–17.Google Scholar
Cong, Z. and Silverstein, M. 2012. A vignette study on elders' gendered filial expectations in rural China: children's migration, child care responsibilities, and actual support provided. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74, 3, 510–25.Google Scholar
Cox, E. O., Green, K. E., Hobart, K., Jang, L. J. and Seo, H. 2007. Strengthening the late-life care process: effects of two forms of a care-receiver efficacy intervention. Gerontologist, 47, 3, 388–97.Google Scholar
Davis-Friedmann, D. 1991. Long Lives: Chinese Elderly and the Communist Revolution. Second edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dowd, J. J. 1975. Aging as exchange: a preface to theory. Journal of Gerontology, 30, 5, 584–94.Google Scholar
Eggebeen, D. J. and Davey, A. 1998. Do safety nets work? The role of anticipated help in times of need. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 4, 939–50.Google Scholar
Feng, D., Cong, Z. and Silverstein, M. 2011. Missing values in longitudinal analysis. In Newsom, J. T., Jones, R. N. and Hofer, S. M. (eds), Longitudinal Data Analysis: A Practical Guide for Researchers in Aging, Health, and Social Sciences. Routledge, New York, 71–96.Google Scholar
Giles, J. and Mu, R. 2007. Elderly parent health and the migration decisions of adult children: evidence from rural China. Demography, 44, 2, 265–88.Google Scholar
Henretta, J. C., Hill, M. S., Li, W., Soldo, B. J. and Wolf, D. A. 1997. Selection of children to provide care: the effect of earlier parental transfers. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 52B, special issue, 110–19.Google Scholar
Henz, U. 2010. Parent care as unpaid family labor: how do spouses share? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 72, 1, 148–64.Google Scholar
Hermalin, A. I. 2002. Well-being of the Elderly in Asia: A Four-country Comparative Study. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.Google Scholar
Krause, N. 2001. Social support. In Binstock, R. L. and George, L. K. (eds), Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences. Fifth edition, Academic Press, San Diego, California, 273–94.Google Scholar
Lawrence, J. A., Goodnow, J. J., Woods, K. and Karantzas, G. 2002. Distributions of caregiving tasks among family members: the place of gender and availability. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 4, 493–509.Google Scholar
Lee, C. C., Czaja, S. J. and Schulz, R. 2010. The moderating influence of demographic characteristics, social support, and religious coping on the effectiveness of a multicomponent psychosocial caregiver intervention in three racial ethnic groups. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 65B, 2, 185–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, Y. and Xiao, Z. 1998. Children's support for elderly parents in urban and rural China: results from a national survey. Journal of Cross-cultural Gerontology, 13, 1, 39–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, S., Feldman, M. W. and Jin, X. 2004. Children, marriage form, and family support for the elderly in contemporary rural China: the case of Songzi. Research on Aging, 26, 3, 352–84.Google Scholar
Lin, I. F., Goldman, N., Weinstein, M., Lin, Y., Gorrindo, T. and Seeman, T. 2003. Gender differences in adult children's support of their parents in Taiwan. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 1, 184–200.Google Scholar
Litwak, E., Silverstein, M., Bengtson, V. L. and Hirst, Y. W. 2003. Theories about families, organizations, and social supports. In Bengtson, V. L. and Lowenstein, A. (eds), Global Aging and Challenges to Families. Aldine de Gruyter, New York, 27–53.Google Scholar
Litwin, H. 2004. Intergenerational exchange and mental health in later-life: the case of older Jewish Israelis. Aging and Mental Health, 8, 3, 196–200.Google Scholar
Liu, Q. and Reilly, B. 2004. Income transfers of Chinese rural migrants: some empirical evidence from Jinan. Applied Economics, 36, 12, 1295–313.Google Scholar
Lucas, R. E. and Stark, O. 1985. Motivations to remit: evidence from Botswana. Journal of Political Economy, 93, 5, 901–18.Google Scholar
Mangen, D., Bengtson, V. L. and Landry, P. H. Jr (eds) 1988. The Measurement of Intergenerational Relations. Sage, Beverly Hills, California.Google Scholar
Pang, E. C., Jordan-Marsh, M., Silverstein, M. and Cody, M. 2003. Health-seeking behaviors of elderly Chinese Americans: shifts in expectations. Gerontologist, 43, 6, 864–74.Google Scholar
Peek, M. K., Coward, R. T., Peek, C. W. and Lee, G. R. 1998. Are expectations for care related to the receipt of care? An analysis of parent care among disabled elders. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 53B, 3, S127–36.Google Scholar
Pezzin, L. E., Pollak, R. A. and Schone, B. S. 2007. Efficiency in family bargaining: living arrangements and caregiving decisions of adult children and disabled elderly parents. CESifo Economic Studies, 53, 1, 69–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pillemer, K. and Suitor, J. J. 2006. Making choices: a within-family study of caregiver selection. Gerontologist, 46, 4, 439–48.Google Scholar
Poirine, B. 1997. A theory of remittances as an implicit family loan arrangement. World Development, 25, 4, 589–611.Google Scholar
Rossi, A. S. and Rossi, P. H. 1990. Of Human Bonding: Parent–Child Relations Across the Life Course. Aldine de Gruyter, New York.Google Scholar
Secondi, G. 1997. Private monetary transfers in rural China: are families altruistic? Journal of Development Studies, 33, 4, 487–511.Google Scholar
Shi, L. 1993. Family financial and household support exchange between generations: a survey of Chinese rural elderly. The Gerontologist, 33, 4, 468–80.Google Scholar
Silverstein, M. and Bengtson, V. L. 1997. Intergenerational solidarity and the structure of adult child–parent relations in American families. American Journal of Sociology, 103, 2, 429–60.Google Scholar
Silverstein, M., Cong, Z. and Li, S. 2006. Intergenerational transfers and living arrangements of older people in rural China: consequences for psychological well-being. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 61B, 5, S256–66.Google Scholar
Silverstein, M., Conroy, S. J., Wang, H., Giarrusso, R. and Bengtson, V. L. 2002. Reciprocity in parent–child relations over the life course. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 57B, 1, S3–13.Google Scholar
Silverstein, M. and Giarrusso, R. 2010. Aging and family life: a decade review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 5, 1039–58.Google Scholar
State Council of the People's Republic of China 2000. Statistics of Rural and Nonrural Residents of Each Province. Available online at http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/renkoupucha/2000pucha/html/t0105.htm [Accessed 18 January 2010].Google Scholar
Suitor, J. J. and Pillemer, K. 2006. Choosing daughters: exploring why mothers favor adult daughters over sons. Sociological Perspectives, 49, 2, 139–61.Google Scholar
Suitor, J. J. and Pillemer, K. 2007. Mothers' favoritism in later life – the role of children's birth order. Research on Aging, 29, 1, 32–55.Google Scholar
Sun, R. 2002. Old age support in contemporary urban China from both parents' and children's perspectives. Research on Aging, 24, 3, 337–59.Google Scholar
Sun, R. 2004. Worry about medical care, family support, and depression of the elders in urban China. Research on Aging, 26, 5, 559–85.Google Scholar
Sung, K. T. 1995. Measures and dimensions of filial piety in Korea. Gerontologist, 35, 2, 240–7.Google Scholar
Szinovacz, M. E. and Davey, A. 2007. Changes in adult child caregiver networks. Gerontologist, 47, 3, 280–95.Google Scholar
Szinovacz, M. E. and Davey, A. 2008. The division of parent care between spouses. Ageing & Society, 28, 4, 571–97.Google Scholar
Tsuya, N., Choe, M. K. and Wang, F. 2009. Below-replacement fertility in East Asia: Patterns, factors and policy implications. Paper presented at the 26th IUSSP International Population Conference, Marrakech, Morocco.Google Scholar
Whyte, M. and Xu, Q. 2003. Support for aging parents from daughters versus sons. In Whyte, M. (ed.), China's Revolutions and Intergenerational Relations. Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 167–96.Google Scholar
Willson, A. E., Shuey, K. M. and Elder, G. H. 2003. Ambivalence in the relationship of adult children to aging parents and in-laws. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 4, 1055–72.Google Scholar
Wolf, D. A., Freedman, V. and Soldo, B. J. 1997. The division of family labor: care for elderly parents. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 52B, special issue, 102–9.Google Scholar
Yan, Y. 2003. Private Life Under Socialism: Love, Intimacy, and Family Change in a Chinese Village, 1949–1999. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.Google Scholar
Yang, H. 1996. The distributive norm of monetary support to older parents: a study in China. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 2, 404–15.Google Scholar
Zhan, H. J. 2004. Through gendered lens: explaining Chinese caregivers' task performance and care reward. Journal of Women & Aging, 16, 1/2, 123–42.Google Scholar
Zhang, H. 2007. China's new rural daughters coming of age: downsizing the family and firing up cash-earning power in the new economy. Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 32, 3, 671–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, W. and Wang, Y. 2010. Meal and residence rotation of elderly parents in contemporary rural Northern China. Journal of Cross-cultural Gerontology, 25, 3, 217–37.Google Scholar
Zimmer, Z. 2005. Health and living arrangement transitions among China's oldest-old. Research on Aging, 27, 5, 526–55.Google Scholar
Zimmer, Z., Kaneda, T., Tang, Z. and Fang, X. 2010. Explaining late life urban vs. rural health discrepancies in Beijing. Social Forces, 88, 4, 1885–908.Google Scholar
Zimmer, Z. and Kwong, J. 2003. Family size and support of older adults in urban and rural China: current effects and future implications. Demography, 40, 1, 23–44.Google Scholar