Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T07:26:52.111Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Differential Psychological Ageing: Profiles of the Old and Very Old

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 November 2008

Jacqui Smith  and
Paul B. Baltes
Jacqui Smith
Affiliation:
Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education, Lentzeallee 94, D-14195 Berlin, Germany.
Paul B. Baltes
Affiliation:
Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education, Lentzeallee 94, D-14195 Berlin, Germany.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Theoretical positions which argue for age-related and individual variation in profiles of psychological functioning and patterns of predictive relationships are reviewed in the context of the three domains investigated by the Psychology Unit of the Berlin Aging Study (BASE): intelligence and cognition, self and personality, and social relationships. To illustrate the potential of BASE, we report initial data for a small set of variables from these three psychological domains for the first wave of study participants (N = 360, age range 70 to 103 years). Our analyses of these data were targeted toward three key questions about differential psychological ageing: namely, the extent of age/cohort-related differences and individual variation within each domain, possible age differences in the structural relationships between the three domains, and subgroup variations in cross-domain profiles of functioning. Within domains, individual differences in general were very large. Chronological age accounted for a sizeable proportion of the variance only in the domain of cognitive performance. The structural relationships between the domains of psychological functioning were similar for the old and very old age groups and reflected much domain independence. Examination of subgroup variations in cross-domain profiles of functioning revealed ten subgroups. All subgroups showed an uneven, that is, age-selective group membership: five subgroups included more of the very old, two more of the old, and three were age-specific. Preliminary explorations of these subgroups suggested substantial links to selected health-related variables, supporting proposals for multi-disciplinary research into differential ageing.

Type
Research Article
Information
Ageing & Society , Volume 13 , Issue 4 , December 1993 , pp. 551 - 587
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1993

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Antonucci, T. C. 1985. Personal characteristics: social support and social behavior. In Binstock, R. H. and Shanas, E. (eds), Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences, second edition, pp. 94–128. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.Google Scholar
Antonucci, T. C. 1990. Social supports and social relationships. In Binstock, R. H. and George, L. K. (eds), Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences, third edition, pp. 205–226. Academic Press, San Diego, California.Google Scholar
Antonucci, T. C. and Akiyama, H. 1987a. Social networks in adult life and a preliminary examination of the convoy model. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 519–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antonucci, T. C. and Akiyama, H. 1987b. An examination of sex differences in social support among older men and women. Sex Roles, 17, 737–749.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bäckman, L. (ed.) 1991. Memory functioning in dementia. Advances in Psychology No. 89. North Holland, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Baltes, M. M. and Tesch-Römer, C. In press. Einsamkeit im Alter [Loneliness in old age]. In Todt, D. (ed.), Zur Natur sozialer Beziehungsgefüge [On the nature of social relations]. Parey, Berlin.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B. 1987. Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: on the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology, 23, 611–626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B. 1991. The many faces of the aging mind: Toward a psychological culture of old age. Psychological Medicine, 21, 837–854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B. In press. The aging mind: potential and limits. Gerontologist.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M. 1990. Psychological perspectives on successful aging: the model of selective optimization with compensation. In Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M. (eds), Successful aging: Perspectives from the Behavioral Sciences, pp. 1–34. Cambridge University Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B. and Kliegl, R. 1992. Further testing of limits of cognitive plasticity: negative age differences in a mnemonic skill are robust. Developmental Psychology, 28, 121–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Mayer, K. U., Helmchen, H. and Steinhagen-Thiessen, E. 1993. The Berlin Aging Study (BASE): Overview and design. Ageing and Society, this issue.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bengtson, V. L., Reedy, M. N. and Gordon, C. 1985. Aging and self-conceptions: Personality processes and social contexts. In Birren, J. E. and Schaie, K. W. (eds), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, second edition, pp. 544–593. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.Google Scholar
Bengtson, V. L. and Schütze, Y. 1992. Altern und Generationenbeziehungen: Aussichten für das kommende Jahrhundert (Aging and Intergenerational Relationships: Outlooks for the Next Century]). In Baltes, P. B. and Mittelstraß, J. (eds), Zukunft des Alterns und gesellschaftliche Entwicklung [The Future of Aging and Societal Development]. De Gruyter, Berlin.Google Scholar
Birren, J. E. 1959. Principles of research on aging. In Birren, J. E. (ed.), Handbook of Aging and the Individual: Psychological and Biological Aspects, pp. 3–42. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Birren, J. E. and Birren, B. A. 1990. The concepts, models and history of the psychology of aging. In Birren, J. E. and Schaie, K. W. (eds), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, third edition, pp. 3–20. Academic Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birren, J. E. and Renner, V. J. 1977. Research on the psychology of aging. In Birren, J. E. and Schaie, K. W. (eds), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, first edition, pp. 3–33. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.Google Scholar
Birren, J. E. and Renner, V. J. 1980. Concepts and issues of mental health and aging. In Birren, J. E. and Sloane, R. B. (eds), Handbook of Mental Health and Aging, pp. 3–33. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Brackbill, Y. and Kitch, D. 1991. Intergenerational relationships: A social exchange perspective on joint living arrangements among the elderly and their relatives. Journal of Aging Studies, 5, 77–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandtstädter, J. and Renner, G. 1990. Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: Explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative strategies. Psychology and Aging, 5, 58–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brandtstädter, J. and Greve, W. In press. The aging self: Stabilizing and protective processes. Developmental Review.Google Scholar
Breytspaak, L. M. 1984. The Development of the Self in Later Life. Little Brown, Boston.Google Scholar
Brim, O. G. Jr., 1992. Ambition: How We Manage Success and Failure Throughout our Lives. Basic Books, New York.Google Scholar
Busse, E. W. and Maddox, G. 1985. The Duke Longitudinal Studies of Normal Aging: 1955–1980. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Carstensen, L. L. In press. Motivation for social contact across the life span: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. In Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1993. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nevada.Google Scholar
Carstensen, L. L. and Freund, A. In press. The resilience of the aging self: Commentary on Brandtstädter and Greve. Developmental Review.Google Scholar
Cattell, R. B. 1971. Abilities: Their Structure, Growth, and Action. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Cicirelli, V. G. 1989. Feelings of attachment to siblings and well-being in later life. Psychology and Aging, 4, 211–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, P. T. Jr., and McCrae, R. R. 1980. Still stable after all these years: Personality as a key to some issues in adulthood and old age. In Baltes, P. B. and Brim, O. G. Jr., (eds), Life-Span Development and Behavior, Vol. 3, pp. 65–102. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. 1983. On the transfer of information from temporary to permanent memory. In Broadbent, D. E. (ed.), Functional Aspects of Human Memory, pp. 341–358. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Cumming, E. and Henry, W. E. 1961. Growing Old. Basic Books, New York.Google Scholar
Dannefer, D. 1988. What's in a name? An account of the neglect of variability in the study of aging. In Birren, J. E. and Bengtson, V. L. (eds), Emergent Theories of Aging, pp. 356–384. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Dowd, J. J. 1975. Aging as exchange: A preface to theory. Journal of Gerontology, 30, 584–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dowd, J. J. 1980. Exchange rates and old people. Journal of Gerontology, 35, 596–602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erikson, E. H. 1959. Identity and the Life Cycle: Selected Papers. International Universities Press, New York.Google Scholar
Erikson, E. H., Erikson, J. M. and Kivnick, H. Q. 1986. Vital Involvement in Old Age: The Experience of Old Age in our Time. Norton, New York.Google Scholar
Featherman, D. L. 1983. The life-span perspective in social science research. In Baltes, P. B. and Brim, O. G. Jr., (eds), Life-Span Development and Behavior, Vol. 5, pp. 1–59. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Field, D. and Millsap, R. E. 1991. Personality in advanced old age: continuity or change? Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, 299–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, D. and Minkler, M. 1988. Continuity and change in social support between young-old and old-old or very-old age. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 43, 100–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, D. and Minkler, M. In press. The importance of families in advanced old age: a family is “forever”. In Cowan, P., Field, D., Hansen, D., Skolnick, A. and Swanson, G. E. (eds), Family, Self, and Society: Toward a New Agenda for Family Research. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Filipp, S. H. and Klauer, T. 1986. Conceptions of the self over the life span: Reflections on the dialectics of change. In Baltes, M. M. and Baltes, P. B. (eds), The Psychology of Control and Aging, pp. 167–205. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Finch, C. E. 1990. Longevity, Senescence and the Genome. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Fiske, A. P. 1992. The four elementary forms of sociality: framework for a unified theory of social relations. Psychological Review, 99, 689–723.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freund, A., Staudinger, U. M., and Smith, J. 1991. How do very old people define themselves: representative “Who am I” data from 70 to 103 year-olds. Poster presented at the 44th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, San Francisco, California.Google Scholar
Gerok, W. and Brandtstädter, J. 1992. Normales, krankhaftes und optimales Altern: Variationen und Modification [Normal, pathological and optimal aging: Variations and range of modifiability]. In Baltes, P. B. and Mittelstraß, J. (eds), Zukunft des Altems und gesellschaftliche Entwicklung [The Future of Aging and Societal Development]. De Gruyter, Berlin.Google Scholar
Gouldner, A. W. 1960. The norm of reciprocity: a preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25, 161–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Häfner, 1986. Psychische Gesundheit im Alter. Fischer, Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Haessler, S. and Willis, S. L. 1990. Longitudinal stability and change in social support networks of the young-old and the old-old. Paper presented at the 43rd annual scientific meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, Boston, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Havighurst, R. J. 1961. Successful aging. Gerontologist, 1, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heller, K. and Lakey, B. 1985. Perceived support and social interaction among friends and confidants. In Sarason, I. G. and Sarason, B. R. (eds), Social Support: Theory, Research and Applications, pp. 287–302. Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heckhausen, J. and Schulz, R. In press. Optimization by selection and compensation: Balancing primary and secondary control in life-span development. International Journal of Behavioural Development.Google Scholar
Hertzog, C. and Schaie, K. W. 1988. Stability and change in adult intelligence: 2. Simultaneous analysis of longitudinal means and covariance structures. Psychology and Aging, 33, 122–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, J. L. 1982. The theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence in relation to concepts of cognitive psychology and aging in adulthood. In Craik, F. I. M. and Trehub, S. E. (eds), Aging and Cognitive Processes, pp. 847–870. Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. and Hofer, S. M. 1992. Major abilities and development in the adult period. In Sternberg, R. J. and Berg, C. A. (eds), Intellectual Development, pp. 44–99. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Ingersoll-Dayton, B. and Antonucci, T. C. 1988. Reciprocal and nonreciprocal social support: Contrasting sides of intimate relationships. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 43, 65–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ingersoll-Dayton, B. and Talbott, M. M. 1991. Assessment of social support exchanges: Cognitions of the old-old. Manuscript submitted.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahn, R. L. and Antonucci, T. C. 1980. Convoys over the life course: Attachment, roles, and social support. In Baltes, P. B. and Brim, O. G. Jr., (eds), Life-Span Development and Behavior, Vol. 3. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Kastenbaum, R., Derbin, V., Sabatini, P. and Artt, S. 1972. The ages of me: toward personal and interpersonal definitions of functional aging. Aging and Human Development, 3, 197–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kliegl, R. and Baltes, P. B. 1987. Theory-guided analysis of developmental and aging mechanisms through testing-the-limits and research on expertise. In Schooler, C. and Schaie, K. W. (eds), Cognitive Functioning and Social Structure over the Life Course, pp. 95–119. Ablex, Norwood, New York.Google Scholar
Kliegl, R., Smith, J. and Baltes, P. B. 1989. Testing-the-limits and plasticity of adult age differences in cognitive plasticity of mnemonic skill. Developmental Psychology, 25, 247–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kliegl, R., Smith, J. and Baltes, P. B. 1990. On the locus and process of magnification of age differences during mnemonic training. Developmental Psychology, 26, 894–904.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knipscheer, K. 1986. Anomie in der Mehrgenerationenfamilie: Kinder und die Versorgung ihrer alten Eltern. Zeitschrift für Gerontologie, 19, 40–46.Google Scholar
Krause, N., Herzog, A. R. and Baker, E. 1992. Providing support to others and well-being in later life. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 47, 300–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lachman, M. E. 1986. Personal control in later life: Stability, change and cognitive correlates. In Baltes, M. M. and Baltes, P. B. (eds), The Psychology of Control and Aging, pp. 207–236. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Lang, F. and Schütze, Y. 1991. Is it more blessed to give than to receive? Exchange patterns in social support networks of the elderly. Poster presented at the 44th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, San Francisco, California.Google Scholar
Larson, R. 1978. Thirty years of research on the subjective well-being of older Americans. Journal of Gerontology, 33, 109–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawton, M. P. 1975. The Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale: a revision. Journal of Gerontology, 30, 85–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, G. R. and Ellithorpe, E. 1982. Intergenerational exchange and subjective well-being among the elderly. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 44, 217–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehr, U. and Minnemann, E. 1987. Veraänderungen von Quantität and Qualität sozialer Kontakte vom 7. bis 9. Lebensjahrzehnt. In Lehr, U. and Thomae, H. (eds), Formen seelischen Alterns: Ergebnisse der Banner Gerontologischen Längsschnittstudie (BOLSA), Enke, Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Lehr, U. and Thomae, H. (eds) 1987. Formen seelischen Alterns: Ergebnisse der Bonner Gerontologischen Längsschnittstudie (BOLSA). Enke, Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Liang, J., Lawrence, R. H. and Bollen, K. A. 1986. Age differences in the structure of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale. Psychology and Aging, 1, 27–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindenberger, U. and Baltes, P. B. 1993. Sensory functioning and intelligence in old age: A powerful but troublesome connection. Manuscript submitted.Google Scholar
Lindenberger, U., Mayr, U. and Kliegl, R. 1993. Speed and intelligence in old age. Psychology and Aging, 8, 207–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maddox, G. L. 1987. Aging differently. Gerontologist, 27, 557–564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maddox, G. L. and Douglass, E. B. 1974. Aging and individual differences: A longitudinal analysis of social, psychological, and physiological indicators. Journal of Gerontology, 29, 555–563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Markus, H. and Cross, S. 1990. The interpersonal self. In Pervin, L. A. (ed.), Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, pp. 576–608. Guilford Press, New York.Google Scholar
Markus, H. and Herzog, A. R. 1991. The role of the self-concept in aging. In Schaie, K. W. and Lawton, M. P. (eds), Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Vol. 11, pp. 110–143. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Markus, H. and Nurius, P. 1986. Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954–969.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, K. U. and Wagner, M. 1993. Socio-economic resources and differential aging: first results from the Berlin Aging Study. Ageing and Society, this issue.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayr, U., Lindenberger, U. and Kliegl, R. 1991. Intellectual functioning in old age and very old age: The role of mental speed. Paper presented at the 44th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, San Francisco, California.Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R. and Costa, P. T. Jr. 1990. Personality in Adulthood. Guildford, New York.Google Scholar
McCulloch, B. J. 1990. The relationship of intergenerational reciprocity of aid to the morale of older parents: equity and exchange theory comparisons. Journal of Gerontology, 45, 150–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, A. and Dannefer, D. 1992. Aged heterogeneity: fact or fiction? The fate of diversity in gerontological research. Gerontologist, 32, 17–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nesselroade, J. R. 1989. Adult personality development: issues in assessing constancy and change. In Rabin, A. I., Zucker, R. A., Emmons, R. A. and Frank, S. (eds), Studying Persons and Lives. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Nesselroade, J. R. and Baltes, P. B. (eds) 1979. Longitudinal Research in the Study of Behavior and Development. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Neugarten, B. L. 1969. Continuities and discontinuities of psychological issues into adult life. Human Development, 12, 121–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neugarten, B. L. 1974. Age groups in American society and the rise of the young-old. Annals of the American Academy of Politics and Social Sciences, 187–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neugarten, B. L. 1977. Personality and aging. In Birren, J. E. and Schaie, K. W. (eds), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, first edition, pp. 626–649. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.Google Scholar
Neugarten, B. L., Havighurst, R. J. and Tobin, S. S. 1968. Personality and patterns of aging. In Neugarten, B. L. (ed.), Middle Age and Ageing, pp. 173–177. Chicago University Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Palmore, E., Busse, E. W., Maddox, J. L., Nowlin, J. B. and Siegler, J. C. (eds.) 1985. Normal Aging III: Reports from the Duke Longitudinal Studies 1975–1984. Duke University Press, Durham, North Carolina.Google Scholar
Palmore, E., Nowlin, J. B. and Wang, H. S. 1985. Predictors of function among the old-old: a 10-year follow-up. Journal of Gerontology, 40, 244–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perlmutter, M. 1988. Cognitive potential throughout life. In Birren, J. E. and Bengtson, V. L.Emergent Theories of Aging. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Poon, L. W., Clayton, G. M., Martin, P., Johnson, M. A., Courtenay, B. C., Sweaney, A. L., Merriam, S. B., Pless, B. S. and Thielman, S. B. 1992. The Georgia Centenarian Study. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 34, 1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichard, S., Livson, F. and Peterson, P. G. 1962. Aging and Personality: A Study of Eighty-Seven Older Men. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Riegel, K. F. and Riegel, R. M. 1972. Development, drop, and death. Developmental Psychology, 6, 306–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberto, K. A. 1989. Exchange and equity in friendships. In Adams, R. and Blieszner, R. (eds), Older Adult Friendship: Structure and Process, pp. 147–165. Sage, Newbury Park, California.Google Scholar
Roberts, R. E. L. and Bengtson, V. L. 1990. Is intergenerational solidarity a unidimensional construct? A second test of a formal model. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 45, 12–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rook, K. 1987. Reciprocity of social exchange and social satisfaction among older women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 145–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenmayr, L. and Rosenmayr, H. 1978. Der alte Mensch in der Gesellschaft. Rowohlt, Reinbek, Hamburg.Google Scholar
Rossi, A. and Rossi, P. 1990. Of Human Bonding: Parent-Child Relationships Across the Life Course. Aldine and Gruyter, Hawthorne, New York.Google Scholar
Rowe, J. W. and Kahn, R. L. 1987. Human aging: usual and successful. Science, 237, 143–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (ed.) 1990. Studies of Psychosocial Risk: The Power of Longitudinal Data. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Ryff, C. D. 1982. Successful aging: a developmental approach. Gerontologist, 22, 209–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryff, C. D. 1991. Possible selves in adulthood and old age: a tale of shifting horizons. Psychology and Aging, 6, 286–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryff, C. D. and Essex, M. J. 1992. Psychological well-being in adulthood and old age: descriptive markers and explanatory processes. In Schaie, K. W. and Lawton, M. Powell (eds), Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Vol. II. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. 1982. Adult Cognition: An Experimental Psychology of Human Aging. Springer, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. 1985. A Theory of Cognitive Aging. North Holland, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. 1991. Theoretical Perspectives on Cognitive Aging. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Schaie, K. W. 1989. Individual differences in rate of cognitive change in adulthood. In Bengtson, V. L. and Schaie, K. W. (eds), The Course of Later Life: Research and Reflections, pp. 63–83. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Schaie, K. W. 1990. Optimization of cognitive functioning. In Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M. (eds), Successful Aging: Perspectives from the Behavioral Sciences, pp. 94–117. Cambridge University Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schütze, Y. 1990. Sociale Beziehungen [Social Relationships]. In Interim Report about Phase I of BASE to the Federal Ministry for Research and Technology (Appendix C). Academy of Sciences, Berlin.Google Scholar
Shanas, E. 1979. Social myths as hypothesis: The case of family relations of old people. Gerontologist, 19, 3–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shock, N. W. 1977. System integration. In Finch, C. E. and Hayflick, L. (eds), Handbook of the Biology of Aging, pp. 639–665. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.Google Scholar
Siegler, I. C. 1975. The terminal drop hypothesis: Fact or artifact? Experimental Aging Research, 1, 169–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegler, I. C. and Costa, P. T. Jr., 1985. Health behavior relationships. In Birren, J. E. and Schaie, K. W. (eds), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, second edition, pp. 144–166. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.Google Scholar
Smith, J., Little, T. and Freund, A. 1992. Subjective well-being in the very old: Are there age differences? Unpublished manuscript, Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education, Berlin.Google Scholar
Smith, J., Staudinger, U. M. and Freund, A. 1991. The aged self: Profiles of adjustment in very old age. Paper presented at the 44th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, San Francisco, California.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., Marsiske, M. and Baltes, P. B. In Press. Resilience and reserve capacity in adult development and aging. Development and Psychopathology.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., Freund, A. and Smith, J. 1991. Differential coping patterns in old age. Paper presented at the 44th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, San Francisco, California.Google Scholar
Steinhagen-Thiessen, E. and Borchelt, M. 1993. Health differences in the oldest old: Initial data from the Berlin Aging Study. This issue.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sussman, M. B. 1985. The family life of old people. In Binstock, R. H. and Shanas, E. (eds), Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.Google Scholar
Thomae, H. 1970. Theory of aging and cognitive theory of personality. Human Development, 13, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomae, H. 1980. Personality and adjustment to aging. In Birren, J. E. and Sloane, R. B. (eds), Handbook of Mental Health and Aging, pp. 285–309. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Thomae, H. 1987. Conceptualizations of responses to stress. European Journal of Personality and Psychology, 1, 171–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Troll, L. E., Miller, S. J. and Atchley, R. C. 1979. Families in Later Life. Wadsworth, Belmont, California.Google Scholar
Walster, E., Walster, G. W. and Berscheid, E. 1978. Equity: Theory and Research. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. 1955. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Manual. The Psychological Corporation, New York.Google Scholar
Williams, R. H. 1963. Styles of life and successful aging. In Williams, R. H., Tibbitts, C. and Donahue, W. (eds), Process of Aging: Social and Psychological Perspectives, Vol. I, pp. 335–372. Atherton Press, New York.Google Scholar
Winblad, B., Hardy, J., Bäckman, L. and Nilsson, L. G. 1985. Memory function and brain biochemistry in normal aging and in senile dementia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 444, 255–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed