Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T15:16:48.538Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The power of culture: the gendered impact of family structures and living arrangements on social networks of Chinese older adults

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 September 2020

Menghan Zhao Open the ORCID record for Menghan Zhao [Opens in a new window] ,
Fan Yang Open the ORCID record for Fan Yang [Opens in a new window]  and
Youlang Zhang Open the ORCID record for Youlang Zhang [Opens in a new window]
Menghan Zhao
Affiliation:
Population Development Studies Center, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
Fan Yang*
Affiliation:
Population Development Studies Center, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
Youlang Zhang
Affiliation:
Beijing Academy of Development and Strategy, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China Center for Social Governance Innovation, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
*
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Most of the extant literature on the fertility history and social networks of older adults has focused on advanced societies. Nevertheless, a limited number of studies have explored how culturally preferred family structures or living arrangements are related to older adults’ social networks in developing societies. This study examined these issues in the Chinese context and paid particular attention to the filial piety and preference for sons dominating Chinese society. Using nationally representative data of adults aged 60 and over from China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey in 2016, we constructed family and friend network scores following previous studies and developed linear models using multiple imputation for the missing data. The results suggested that childless older adults were the most disadvantaged in receiving support from family networks. Despite China's patrilineal culture, daughters were important sources of support. In terms of friend networks, older men who had no sons were least likely to receive support while co-residing with a partner and a son(s) might benefit them. Further analysis revealed that older rural women, but not older urban women, also had more support from friend networks if living with sons, implying urban–rural differences. Given the impact of social networks on older adults’ health and wellbeing, older Chinese people with no sons might need more support from other sources, such as aged-care programmes from public institutions, to achieve healthy ageing.

Keywords

number of childrenliving arrangementspreference for sonssocial networksChinese older adults
Type
Article
Information
Ageing & Society , Volume 42 , Issue 3 , March 2022 , pp. 657 - 680
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agree, EM, Biddlecom, AE and Valente, TW (2005) Intergenerational transfers of resources between older persons and extended kin in Taiwan and the Philippines. Population Studies 59, 181–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bangerter, LR, Polenick, CA, Zarit, SH and Fingerman, KL (2016) Life problems and perceptions of giving support: implications for aging mothers and middle-aged children. Journal of Family Issues 39, 917–934.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baranowska-Rataj, A and Abramowska-Kmon, A (2019) Number of children and social contacts among older people: the moderating role of filial norms and social policies. European Journal of Ageing 16, 95–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beaujouan, É, Sobotka, T, Brzozowska, Z and Zeman, K (2017) Has childlessness peaked in Europe? Population & Societies 540, 1–4.Google Scholar
Blake, J (1989) Family Size and Achievement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bost, KK, Cox, MJ, Burchinal, MR and Payne, C (2002) Structural and supportive changes in couples’ family and friendship networks across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Marriage and Family 64, 517–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cantor, MH (1989) Social care: family and community support systems. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 503, 99–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, T (2019) Living arrangement preferences and realities for elderly Chinese: implications for subjective wellbeing. Ageing & Society 39, 1557–1581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, F, Short, SE and Entwisle, B (2000) The impact of grandparental proximity on maternal childcare in China. Population Research and Policy Review 19, 571–590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, JS (1988) Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology 94, S95–S120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connidis, IA (2015) Exploring ambivalence in family ties: progress and prospects. Journal of Marriage and Family 77, 77–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croll, E (2000) Endangered Daughters: Discrimination and Development in Asia. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Djundeva, M, Dykstra, PA and Fokkema, T (2019) Is living alone ‘aging alone’? Solitary living, network types, and well-being. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 74B, 1406–1415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Du, P, Sun, J, Zhang, W and Wang, X (2016) The demands of old-age care and the family and social resources for the Chinese elderly: a study based on 2014 China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey. Population Research 40, 49–61. (In Chinese)Google Scholar
Dykstra, PA (2006) Off the beaten track: childlessness and social integration in late life. Research on Aging 28, 749–767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dykstra, PA and Keizer, R (2009) The wellbeing of childless men and fathers in mid-life. Ageing & Society 29, 1227–1242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erikson, EH (1993) Childhood and Society. Reissue. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Feeney, G and Wang, F (1993) Parity progression and birth intervals in China: the influence of policy in hastening fertility decline. Population and Development Review 19, 61–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furstenberg, FF (2005) Banking on families: how families generate and distribute social capital. Journal of Marriage and Family 67, 809–821.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grundy, E and Read, S (2012) Social contacts and receipt of help among older people in England: are there benefits of having more children? Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 67B, 742–754.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guilmoto, CZ (2009) The sex ratio transition in Asia. Population and Development Review 35, 519–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guiso, L, Sapienza, P and Zingales, L (2006) Does culture affect economic outcomes? Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, 23–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hannum, E (2005) Market transition, educational disparities, and family strategies in rural China: new evidence on gender stratification and development. Demography 42, 75–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoff, A (2007) Patterns of intergenerational support in grandparent–grandchild and parent–child relationships in Germany. Ageing & Society 27, 643–665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holt-Lunstad, J (2017) The potential public health relevance of social isolation and loneliness: prevalence, epidemiology, and risk factors. Public Policy & Aging Report 27, 127–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holt-Lunstad, J, Smith, TB and Layton, JB (2010) Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLOS Medicine 7, e1000316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Igarashi, H, Hooker, K, Coehlo, DP and Manoogian, MM (2013) ‘My nest is full:’ intergenerational relationships at midlife. Journal of Aging Studies 27, 102–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ji, Y (2017) A mosaic temporality: new dynamics of the gender and marriage system in contemporary urban China. Temporalités. Revue de Sciences Sociales et Humaines 26. https://doi.org/10.4000/temporalites.3773.Google Scholar
Ji, Y, Wu, X, Sun, S and He, G (2017) Unequal care, unequal work: toward a more comprehensive understanding of gender inequality in post-reform Urban China. Sex Roles 77, 765–778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalmijn, M and Graaf, PMD (2012) Life course changes of children and well-being of parents. Journal of Marriage and Family 74, 269–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamo, Y and Zhou, M (1994) Living arrangements of elderly Chinese and Japanese in the United States. Journal of Marriage and the Family 56, 544–558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klaus, D and Schnettler, S (2016) Social networks and support for parents and childless adults in the second half of life: convergence, divergence, or stability? Advances in Life Course Research 29, 95–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamblin, M, Murawski, C, Whittle, S and Fornito, A (2017) Social connectedness, mental health and the adolescent brain. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 80, 57–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lavely, W, Xiao, Z, Li, B and Freedman, R (1990) The rise in female education in China: national and regional patterns. The China Quarterly 121, 61–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lesthaeghe, R (2010) The unfolding story of the second demographic transition. Population and Development Review 36, 211–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, T, Yang, YC and Zhang, Y (2018) Culture, economic development, social-network type, and mortality: evidence from Chinese older adults. Social Science & Medicine 204, 23–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, I-F, Goldman, N, Weinstein, M, Lin, Y-H, Gorrindo, T and Seeman, T (2003) Gender differences in adult children's support of their parents in Taiwan. Journal of Marriage and Family 65, 184–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lu, Y and Tao, R (2015) Female migration, cultural context, and son preference in rural China. Population Research and Policy Review 34, 665–686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lubben, J, Blozik, E, Gillmann, G, Iliffe, S, von Renteln Kruse, W, Beck, JC and Stuck, AE (2006) Performance of an abbreviated version of the Lubben Social Network Scale among three European community-dwelling older adult populations. The Gerontologist 46, 503–513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luescher, K and Pillemer, K (1998) Intergenerational ambivalence: a new approach to the study of parent–child relations in later life. Journal of Marriage and Family 60, 413–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mair, CA (2019) Alternatives to aging alone? ‘Kinlessness’ and the importance of friends across European contexts. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 74B, 1416–1428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, P (2013) Societal foundations for explaining fertility: gender equity. Demographic Research 28, 981–994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munch, A, McPherson, JM and Smith-Lovin, L (1997) Gender, children, and social contact: the effects of childrearing for men and women. American Sociological Review 62, 509–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, R, Tao, R and Lu, X (2011) Son preference in rural China: patrilineal families and socioeconomic change. Population and Development Review 37, 665–690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Bureau of Statistics of China (2018) China Statistical Yearbook (2018). Beijing: China Statistics Press.Google Scholar
National Bureau of Statistics of China (2019) 2018 National Economic and Social Development Statistical Report. Available at http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/zxfb/201902/t20190228_1651265.html.Google Scholar
Nauck, B and Arránz Becker, O (2013) Institutional regulations and the kinship solidarity of women – results from 13 areas in Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America. European Sociological Review 29, 580–592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nomaguchi, KM and Milkie, MA (2003) Costs and rewards of children: the effects of becoming a parent on adults’ lives. Journal of Marriage and Family 65, 356–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Offer, S and Schneider, B (2007) Children's role in generating social capital. Social Forces 85, 1125–1142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raymo, JM, Park, H, Xie, Y and Yeung, WJ (2015) Marriage and family in East Asia: continuity and change. Annual Review of Sociology 41, 471–492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schnettler, S and Wöhler, T (2016) No children in later life, but more and better friends? Substitution mechanisms in the personal and support networks of parents and the childless in Germany. Ageing & Society 36, 1339–1363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, E and Litwin, H (2018) Social network changes among older Europeans: the role of gender. European Journal of Ageing 15, 359–367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seto, KC, Kaufmann, RK and Woodcock, CE (2000) Landsat reveals China's farmland reserves, but they're vanishing fast. Nature 406, 121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shanas, E (1979) The family as a social support system in old age. The Gerontologist 19, 169–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shankar, A, Hamer, M, McMunn, A and Steptoe, A (2013) Social isolation and loneliness: relationships with cognitive function during 4 years of follow-up in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Psychosomatic Medicine 75, 161–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverstein, M, Cong, Z and Li, S (2006) Intergenerational transfers and living arrangements of older people in rural China: consequences for psychological well-being. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 61B, S256–S266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, S (2012) From visible to invisible: housework in the collectivist period (1949–1966). Jiangsu Social Sciences (1), 116–125. (In Chinese)Google Scholar
Song, L (2012) Raising network resources while raising children? Access to social capital by parenthood status, gender, and marital status. Social Networks 34, 241–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China (2012) Law of the People's Republic of China on Protection of the Rights and Interests of the Older Adults. Available at http://www.gov.cn/flfg/2012-12/28/content_2305570.htm.Google Scholar
Tang, D, Lin, Z and Chen, F (in press) Moving beyond living arrangements: the role of family and friendship ties in promoting mental health for urban and rural older adults in China. Aging & Mental Health. Available online https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1602589.Google Scholar
Tao, T (2012) Analysis of rural women's expectation on children and gender preference. Population and Economics (2), 25–32. (In Chinese)Google Scholar
Teerawichitchainan, B, Pothisiri, W and Long, GT (2015) How do living arrangements and intergenerational support matter for psychological health of elderly parents? Evidence from Myanmar, Vietnam, and Thailand. Social Science & Medicine 136–137, 106–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thornton, A (2001) The developmental paradigm, reading history sideways, and family change. Demography 38, 449–465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tomassini, C, Glaser, K and Stuchbury, R (2007) Family disruption and support in later life: a comparative study between the United Kingdom and Italy. Journal of Social Issues 63, 845–863.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UNICEF (2018) Sex Ratio at Birth, 1982–2017. Available at https://www.unicef.cn/figure-19-sex-ratio-birth-19822017.Google Scholar
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019) World Population Prospects: The 2019 Revision. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.Google Scholar
Vargha, L and Donehower, G (2019) The quantity–quality tradeoff: a cross-country comparison of market and nonmarket investments per child in relation to fertility. Population and Development Review 45, 321–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wachter, KW (1997) Kinship resources for the elderly. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences 352, 1811–1817.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warner, RL and Steel, BS (1999) Child rearing as a mechanism for social change: the relationship of child gender to parents’ commitment to gender equity. Gender and Society 13, 503–517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenger, GC (2009) Childlessness at the end of life: evidence from rural Wales. Ageing & Society 29, 1243–1259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whyte, M (2004) Filial Piety: Practice and Discourse in Contemporary East Asia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Willson, AE, Shuey, KM and Elder, GH (2003) Ambivalence in the relationship of adult children to aging parents and in-laws. Journal of Marriage and Family 65, 1055–1072.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, X, Ye, H and He, GG (2014) Fertility decline and women's status improvement in China. Chinese Sociological Review 46, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xie, Y and Zhou, X (2014) Income inequality in today's China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, 6928–6933.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yan, Y (2003) Private Life Under Socialism: Love, Intimacy, and Family Change in a Chinese Village, 1949–1999. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, YC, Boen, C, Gerken, K, Li, T, Schorpp, K and Harris, KM (2016) Social relationships and physiological determinants of longevity across the human life span. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, 578–583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yeung, W-JJ, Desai, S and Jones, GW (2018) Families in Southeast and South Asia. Annual Review of Sociology 44, 469–495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, C (2019) Family support or social support? The role of clan culture. Journal of Population Economics 32, 529–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhao, M (2018) From motherhood premium to motherhood penalty? Heterogeneous effects of motherhood stages on women's economic outcomes in Urban China. Population Research and Policy Review 37, 967–1002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhao, M (2019) Fertility intentions for a second child in China: female educational attainment and assortative marriage. Population Journal 41, 16–27. (In Chinese)Google Scholar
Zhao, M and Ji, Y (2019) Husbands’ housework share and women's hazards of entering parenthood. Population Research 43, 64–77. (In Chinese)Google Scholar
Zhao, M and Zhang, Y (2019) Parental childcare support, sibship status, and mothers’ second-child plans in urban China. Demographic Research 41, 1315–1346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhao, X, Zhou, Y, Tan, H and Lin, H (2018) Spillover effects of children's political status on elderly parents’ health in China. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 72, 973–981.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, Z, Verdery, AM and Margolis, R (2019) No spouse, no son, no daughter, no kin in contemporary China: prevalence, correlates, and differences in economic support. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 74B, 1453–1462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar