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“Whether They Promised Each Other Some Thing Is Difficult to Work Out”: The Complicated History of Marriage in Uganda

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 April 2016

Rhiannon Stephens
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Abstract:

Marriage cases discussed by Catholic missionaries in Uganda at the turn of the twentieth century showcase considerable diversity in relationships between women and men. While these cases reflect the turbulence of the late nineteenth century, the history of marriage and divorce in the region since around 700 CE demonstrates that diversity in marital arrangements was a long-standing phenomenon. This article sets out the history of aspects of marriage and divorce in Buganda, Bugwere, Busoga, and Bushana, and their ancestral communities to show how women and men conceptualized their domestic relationships and adapted them as they dealt with political and social change.

Résumé:

Les cas problématiques de mariage discuter par les missionnaires catholiques en Ouganda à la fin du 19e et au début du 20e siècle illustrent la grande diversité dans les relations matrimoniales entre les femmes et les hommes de l’époque. Alors que ces cas reflètent la turbulence de la fin du 19e siècle, l’histoire du mariage et du divorce dans la région depuis le 8e siècle démontre que cette diversité était anciennement bien établie. Les aspects du mariage et du divorce en Buganda, Bugwere, Busoga, et Bushana, et leurs communautés ancestrales, présentés dans cet article, démontrent de quelle façon les femmes et les hommes ont conceptualisé leurs rapports domestiques et les adapter sur un fond de changements politiques et sociaux.

Keywords

Marriagedivorceprecolonial UgandaBugwereBusogaBuganda
Type
ASR FORUM ON WOMEN AND GENDER IN AFRICA: PART 2
Information
African Studies Review , Volume 59 , Issue 1 , April 2016 , pp. 127 - 153
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2016 

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References

References

Mohammed, M., Bulegenyi, October 15, 2008.Google Scholar
Mutemere, Yokulamu, Butebo, December 2, 2004.Google Scholar
Kawuledde, Joyce, Bulangira, October 27, 2004.Google Scholar
File 6/2. Audrey Richards, Field notes, 16.VI.54 (Mawokola).Google Scholar
Files of Bishop’s Office. File 1: History 1894–1899. Letter from G. Kerstens to Bishop, Nagalama, January 21, 1898.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 1: 1896–1901. Letter from G. Kerstens to Bishop, Nagalama, March 2, 1898; L. Litoff, Case of Kibatu-Muwebwa, Nyenga, January 22, 1901; L. Litoff, Case of EbwayaKyalo-Musibika, Nyenga, January 22, 1901; Marriage Cases, Nyenga, 11 December 1901.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 2. J. Biermans, Case Alevi Zavuga, Nagalama, October 8, 1902.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 4. G. Brandsma, Marriage questions in Kamuli district; Fr. Jackson, Questions about native marriages, Jinja, 1910.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 5. Letter from Fr. Kirk to the Bishop answering questions on marriage customs, St Anthony’s Mission, Budaka, December 22, 1913; Fr. M. Burus, Answers to questions re Native Marriages among the Balamogi, December 29, 1913.Google Scholar
Box Per 1896, File 136. Anthony van Term to Very Reverend Father Rector, April 12, 1901.Google Scholar
UGA Box 3, File 1906. Bishop Hanlon to Fr. Matthews, March 6, 1906.Google Scholar
Amadiume, Ifi. 1987. Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in an African Society. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Atkinson, Ronald R., ed. n.d. (1960s–1970s) “Bugwere Historical Texts.” Columbia, South Carolina.Google Scholar
Bastin, Yvonne, and Schadeberg, Thilo C., eds. 2005 (2002). “Bantu Lexical Reconstructions 3.” Tervuren, Belgium: Musée Royale de l’Afrique Centrale. http://www.metafro.be/blr.Google Scholar
Brierley, Jean, and Spear, Thomas. 1988. “Mutesa, the Missionaries, and Christian Conversion in Buganda.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 21: 601–18.Google Scholar
Chanock, Martin. 1998. Law, Custom and Social Order: The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Cohen, David William. n.d. (1960s–1970s) “Collected Texts of Busoga Traditional History.” Ann Arbor, Michigan.Google Scholar
Cohen, David William. 1977. Womunafu’s Bunafu: A Study of Authority in a Nineteenth Century African Community. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Condon, Fr. M. A. 1911. “Contribution to the Ethnography of the Basoga-Batamba Uganda Protectorate, Br. E. Africa.” Anthropos 6: 366–84.Google Scholar
Cooper, Barbara M. 1997. Marriage in Maradi: Gender and Culture in a Hausa Society in Niger, 1900–1989. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine. 1997. African Women: A Modern History. Translated by Raps, Beth. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Cultural Research Centre. 2000a. Dictionary: Lusoga-English English-Lusoga. Jinja, Uganda: Cultural Research Centre, Diocese of Jinja.Google Scholar
Cultural Research Centre. 2000b. Ensambo edh’Abasoga [Proverbs of the Basoga], volume 2. Jinja, Uganda: Cultural Research Centre, Diocese of Jinja.Google Scholar
Doyle, Shane. 2013. Before HIV: Sexuality, Fertility and Mortality in East Africa 1900–1980. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Edgerton, Robert B. 1971. The Individual in Cultural Adaptation: A Study of Four East African Peoples. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ehret, Christopher. 1998. An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.Google Scholar
Fallers, Lloyd A. 1957. “Some Determinants of Marriage Stability in Busoga: A Reformulation of Gluck’s Hypothesis.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 27: 106–23.Google Scholar
Fields-Black, Edda L. 2008. Deep Roots: Rice Farmers in West Africa and the African Diaspora. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Goldschmidt, Walter. 1986. The Sebei: A Study in Adaptation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Gonzales, Rhonda M. 2008. Societies, Religion, and History: Central East Tanzanians and the World They Created, c. 200 B.C.E. to 1800 C.E. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Gorju, Père Julien. 1920. Entre le Victoria l’Albert et l’Edouard: Ethnographie de la Partie Anglaise du Vicariat de l’Uganda. Origines, Histoire—Religion—Coutumes. Rennes: Imprimerie Oberthür.Google Scholar
Gulere, Cornelius W., comp. 2009. Lusoga-English Dictionary Eibwanio. Kampala: Fountain Publishers.Google Scholar
Guthrie, Malcolm. 1970. Comparative Bantu: An Introduction to the Comparative Linguistics and Prehistory of the Bantu Languages. Volume 4. Farnborough: Gregg International.Google Scholar
Hanson, Holly. 2003. Landed Obligation: The Practice of Power in Buganda. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Hanson, Holly. 2007. “Stolen People and Autonomous Chiefs in Nineteenth-Century Buganda.” In Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa, edited by Médard, Henri and Doyle, Shane, 161–73. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Huber, Hugo. 1968–69. “‘Woman-Marriage’ in Some East African Societies.” Anthropos, Bd. 63/64: 745–52.Google Scholar
Jean-Baptiste, Rachel. 2014. Conjugal Rights: Marriage, Sexuality, and Urban Life in Colonial Libreville, Gabon. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Kagaya, Ryohei. 2006. A Gwere Vocabulary. Asian and African Lexicon 48. Tokyo: Research Institute for Language and Cultures of Asian and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.Google Scholar
Kalibala, Ernest Balintuma. 1946. “The Social Structure of the Baganda Tribe of East Africa.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University.Google Scholar
Kanogo, Tabitha. 2005. African Womanhood in Colonial Kenya, 1900–50. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Khanakwa, Pamela. 2011. “Masculinity and Nation: Struggles in the Practice of Male Circumcision among the Bagisu of Eastern Uganda, 1900s–1960s.” Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Khanakwa, Pamela. 2014. “Male Circumcision among the Bagisu of Eastern Uganda: Practices and Conceptualizations.” Concept Africa research group. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study.Google Scholar
Klieman, Kairn A. 2003. “The Pygmies Were Our Compass”: Bantu and Batwa in the History of West Central Africa, Early Times to c. 1900 C.E. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Laight, Miss, and Lubogo, Y. K.. 1934–35. “Basoga Death and Burial Rites.” Uganda Journal 2: 120–44.Google Scholar
Le Veux, Père. 1914. Manuel de la langue luganda comprenant la grammaire et un receuil de contes et de legends. Maison Carrée, Algeria: Imprimerie des Missionaires d’Afrique (Pères Blancs).Google Scholar
Le Veux, Père. 1917. Premier essai de vocabulaire Luganda—français d’après l’ordre étymologique. Maison Carrée, Algeria: Imprimerie des missionaires d’Afrique (Pères Blancs).Google Scholar
Logose, Gertrude. n.d. “Eirya lye Kigwere” [Gwere Marriage]. Entebbe: Lugwere Bible Translation Project, SIL International.Google Scholar
Mair, Lucy P. 1940. Native Marriage in Buganda. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mair, Lucy P. 1966. An African People in the Twentieth Century. New York: Russell & Russell.Google Scholar
Mann, Kristin. 1985. Marrying Well: Marriage, Status and Social Change Among the Educated Elite in Colonial Lagos. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Médard, Henri. 2007. Le royaume du Buganda au XIXe siècle: Mutations politiques et religieuse d’un ancient État d’Afrique de l’Est. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Musisi, Nakanyike B. 1991. “Women, ‘Elite Polygyny,’ and Buganda State Formation.” Signs 16: 757–86.Google Scholar
Njambi, Wairimũ Ngarũiya, and O’Brien, William E.. 2000. “Revisiting ‘Woman–Woman Marriage’: Notes on Gĩkũyũ Women.” NWSA Journal 12 (1): 1–23.Google Scholar
Nzogi, Richard, and Diprose, Martin, comp. 2011. EKideero ky’oLugwere. Budaka, Uganda: Lugwere Bible Translation and Literacy Association.Google Scholar
Oboler, Regine Smith. 1980. “Is the Female Husband a Man? Woman/Woman Marriage among the Nandi of Kenya.” Ethnology 19: 69–88.Google Scholar
Phiri, Kings M. 1983. “Some Changes in the Matrilineal Family System among the Chewa of Malawi since the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of African History 24: 257–74.Google Scholar
Reid, Richard. 2002. Political Power in Pre-Colonial Buganda: Economy, Society and Warfare in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Reid, Richard. 2007. “Human Booty in Buganda: Some Observations on the Seizure of People in War c.1700–1890.” In Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa, edited by Médard, Henri and Doyle, Shane, 145–60. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Roscoe, John. 1911. The Baganda: An Account of Their Native Customs and Beliefs. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Roscoe, John. 1924. The Northern Bantu: An Account of Some Central African Tribes of the Uganda Protectorate. Cambridge, U.K.: University Press.Google Scholar
Saidi, Christine. 2010. Women’s Authority and Society in Early East-Central Africa. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
Sacks, Karen. 1979. Sisters and Wives: The Past and Future of Sexual Equality. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Schoenbrun, David Lee. 1997. The Historical Reconstruction of Great Lakes Bantu Cultural Vocabulary: Etymologies and Distributions. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.Google Scholar
Schoenbrun, David Lee. 1998. A Green Place, A Good Place: Agrarian Change, Gender, and Social Identity in the Great Lakes Region to the 15th Century. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Shadle, Brett L. 2006.“Girl Cases”: Marriage and Colonialism in Gusiiland, Kenya, 1890–1970. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Snoxall, R. A., comp. 1967. Luganda–English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Speke, John Hanning. 1864. Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile. New York: Harper & Brothers.Google Scholar
Stephens, Rhiannon. 2009. “Lineage and Society in Precolonial Uganda.” Journal of African History 50: 203–21.Google Scholar
Stephens, Rhiannon. 2013. A History of African Motherhood: The Case of Uganda, 700–1900. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Thomas, Lynn M. 2003. Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Tuck, Michael W. 2007. “Women’s Experiences of Enslavement and Slavery in Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth-Century Uganda.” In Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa, edited by Médard, Henri and Doyle, Shane, 174–88. Oxford: James Curry.Google Scholar
Vansina, Jan. 2004. How Societies Are Born: Governance in West Central Africa before 1600. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Mohammed, M., Bulegenyi, October 15, 2008.Google Scholar
Mutemere, Yokulamu, Butebo, December 2, 2004.Google Scholar
Kawuledde, Joyce, Bulangira, October 27, 2004.Google Scholar
File 6/2. Audrey Richards, Field notes, 16.VI.54 (Mawokola).Google Scholar
Files of Bishop’s Office. File 1: History 1894–1899. Letter from G. Kerstens to Bishop, Nagalama, January 21, 1898.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 1: 1896–1901. Letter from G. Kerstens to Bishop, Nagalama, March 2, 1898; L. Litoff, Case of Kibatu-Muwebwa, Nyenga, January 22, 1901; L. Litoff, Case of EbwayaKyalo-Musibika, Nyenga, January 22, 1901; Marriage Cases, Nyenga, 11 December 1901.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 2. J. Biermans, Case Alevi Zavuga, Nagalama, October 8, 1902.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 4. G. Brandsma, Marriage questions in Kamuli district; Fr. Jackson, Questions about native marriages, Jinja, 1910.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 5. Letter from Fr. Kirk to the Bishop answering questions on marriage customs, St Anthony’s Mission, Budaka, December 22, 1913; Fr. M. Burus, Answers to questions re Native Marriages among the Balamogi, December 29, 1913.Google Scholar
Box Per 1896, File 136. Anthony van Term to Very Reverend Father Rector, April 12, 1901.Google Scholar
UGA Box 3, File 1906. Bishop Hanlon to Fr. Matthews, March 6, 1906.Google Scholar
File 6/2. Audrey Richards, Field notes, 16.VI.54 (Mawokola).Google Scholar
Files of Bishop’s Office. File 1: History 1894–1899. Letter from G. Kerstens to Bishop, Nagalama, January 21, 1898.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 1: 1896–1901. Letter from G. Kerstens to Bishop, Nagalama, March 2, 1898; L. Litoff, Case of Kibatu-Muwebwa, Nyenga, January 22, 1901; L. Litoff, Case of EbwayaKyalo-Musibika, Nyenga, January 22, 1901; Marriage Cases, Nyenga, 11 December 1901.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 2. J. Biermans, Case Alevi Zavuga, Nagalama, October 8, 1902.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 4. G. Brandsma, Marriage questions in Kamuli district; Fr. Jackson, Questions about native marriages, Jinja, 1910.Google Scholar
M/15/3 Marriage Cases: File 38. File 5. Letter from Fr. Kirk to the Bishop answering questions on marriage customs, St Anthony’s Mission, Budaka, December 22, 1913; Fr. M. Burus, Answers to questions re Native Marriages among the Balamogi, December 29, 1913.Google Scholar
Box Per 1896, File 136. Anthony van Term to Very Reverend Father Rector, April 12, 1901.Google Scholar
UGA Box 3, File 1906. Bishop Hanlon to Fr. Matthews, March 6, 1906.Google Scholar
Amadiume, Ifi. 1987. Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in an African Society. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Atkinson, Ronald R., ed. n.d. (1960s–1970s) “Bugwere Historical Texts.” Columbia, South Carolina.Google Scholar
Bastin, Yvonne, and Schadeberg, Thilo C., eds. 2005 (2002). “Bantu Lexical Reconstructions 3.” Tervuren, Belgium: Musée Royale de l’Afrique Centrale. http://www.metafro.be/blr.Google Scholar
Brierley, Jean, and Spear, Thomas. 1988. “Mutesa, the Missionaries, and Christian Conversion in Buganda.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 21: 601–18.Google Scholar
Chanock, Martin. 1998. Law, Custom and Social Order: The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Cohen, David William. n.d. (1960s–1970s) “Collected Texts of Busoga Traditional History.” Ann Arbor, Michigan.Google Scholar
Cohen, David William. 1977. Womunafu’s Bunafu: A Study of Authority in a Nineteenth Century African Community. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Condon, Fr. M. A. 1911. “Contribution to the Ethnography of the Basoga-Batamba Uganda Protectorate, Br. E. Africa.” Anthropos 6: 366–84.Google Scholar
Cooper, Barbara M. 1997. Marriage in Maradi: Gender and Culture in a Hausa Society in Niger, 1900–1989. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine. 1997. African Women: A Modern History. Translated by Raps, Beth. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Cultural Research Centre. 2000a. Dictionary: Lusoga-English English-Lusoga. Jinja, Uganda: Cultural Research Centre, Diocese of Jinja.Google Scholar
Cultural Research Centre. 2000b. Ensambo edh’Abasoga [Proverbs of the Basoga], volume 2. Jinja, Uganda: Cultural Research Centre, Diocese of Jinja.Google Scholar
Doyle, Shane. 2013. Before HIV: Sexuality, Fertility and Mortality in East Africa 1900–1980. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Edgerton, Robert B. 1971. The Individual in Cultural Adaptation: A Study of Four East African Peoples. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ehret, Christopher. 1998. An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.Google Scholar
Fallers, Lloyd A. 1957. “Some Determinants of Marriage Stability in Busoga: A Reformulation of Gluck’s Hypothesis.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 27: 106–23.Google Scholar
Fields-Black, Edda L. 2008. Deep Roots: Rice Farmers in West Africa and the African Diaspora. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Goldschmidt, Walter. 1986. The Sebei: A Study in Adaptation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Gonzales, Rhonda M. 2008. Societies, Religion, and History: Central East Tanzanians and the World They Created, c. 200 B.C.E. to 1800 C.E. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Gorju, Père Julien. 1920. Entre le Victoria l’Albert et l’Edouard: Ethnographie de la Partie Anglaise du Vicariat de l’Uganda. Origines, Histoire—Religion—Coutumes. Rennes: Imprimerie Oberthür.Google Scholar
Gulere, Cornelius W., comp. 2009. Lusoga-English Dictionary Eibwanio. Kampala: Fountain Publishers.Google Scholar
Guthrie, Malcolm. 1970. Comparative Bantu: An Introduction to the Comparative Linguistics and Prehistory of the Bantu Languages. Volume 4. Farnborough: Gregg International.Google Scholar
Hanson, Holly. 2003. Landed Obligation: The Practice of Power in Buganda. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Hanson, Holly. 2007. “Stolen People and Autonomous Chiefs in Nineteenth-Century Buganda.” In Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa, edited by Médard, Henri and Doyle, Shane, 161–73. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Huber, Hugo. 1968–69. “‘Woman-Marriage’ in Some East African Societies.” Anthropos, Bd. 63/64: 745–52.Google Scholar
Jean-Baptiste, Rachel. 2014. Conjugal Rights: Marriage, Sexuality, and Urban Life in Colonial Libreville, Gabon. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Kagaya, Ryohei. 2006. A Gwere Vocabulary. Asian and African Lexicon 48. Tokyo: Research Institute for Language and Cultures of Asian and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.Google Scholar
Kalibala, Ernest Balintuma. 1946. “The Social Structure of the Baganda Tribe of East Africa.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University.Google Scholar
Kanogo, Tabitha. 2005. African Womanhood in Colonial Kenya, 1900–50. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Khanakwa, Pamela. 2011. “Masculinity and Nation: Struggles in the Practice of Male Circumcision among the Bagisu of Eastern Uganda, 1900s–1960s.” Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Khanakwa, Pamela. 2014. “Male Circumcision among the Bagisu of Eastern Uganda: Practices and Conceptualizations.” Concept Africa research group. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study.Google Scholar
Klieman, Kairn A. 2003. “The Pygmies Were Our Compass”: Bantu and Batwa in the History of West Central Africa, Early Times to c. 1900 C.E. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Laight, Miss, and Lubogo, Y. K.. 1934–35. “Basoga Death and Burial Rites.” Uganda Journal 2: 120–44.Google Scholar
Le Veux, Père. 1914. Manuel de la langue luganda comprenant la grammaire et un receuil de contes et de legends. Maison Carrée, Algeria: Imprimerie des Missionaires d’Afrique (Pères Blancs).Google Scholar
Le Veux, Père. 1917. Premier essai de vocabulaire Luganda—français d’après l’ordre étymologique. Maison Carrée, Algeria: Imprimerie des missionaires d’Afrique (Pères Blancs).Google Scholar
Logose, Gertrude. n.d. “Eirya lye Kigwere” [Gwere Marriage]. Entebbe: Lugwere Bible Translation Project, SIL International.Google Scholar
Mair, Lucy P. 1940. Native Marriage in Buganda. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mair, Lucy P. 1966. An African People in the Twentieth Century. New York: Russell & Russell.Google Scholar
Mann, Kristin. 1985. Marrying Well: Marriage, Status and Social Change Among the Educated Elite in Colonial Lagos. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Médard, Henri. 2007. Le royaume du Buganda au XIXe siècle: Mutations politiques et religieuse d’un ancient État d’Afrique de l’Est. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Musisi, Nakanyike B. 1991. “Women, ‘Elite Polygyny,’ and Buganda State Formation.” Signs 16: 757–86.Google Scholar
Njambi, Wairimũ Ngarũiya, and O’Brien, William E.. 2000. “Revisiting ‘Woman–Woman Marriage’: Notes on Gĩkũyũ Women.” NWSA Journal 12 (1): 1–23.Google Scholar
Nzogi, Richard, and Diprose, Martin, comp. 2011. EKideero ky’oLugwere. Budaka, Uganda: Lugwere Bible Translation and Literacy Association.Google Scholar
Oboler, Regine Smith. 1980. “Is the Female Husband a Man? Woman/Woman Marriage among the Nandi of Kenya.” Ethnology 19: 69–88.Google Scholar
Phiri, Kings M. 1983. “Some Changes in the Matrilineal Family System among the Chewa of Malawi since the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of African History 24: 257–74.Google Scholar
Reid, Richard. 2002. Political Power in Pre-Colonial Buganda: Economy, Society and Warfare in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Reid, Richard. 2007. “Human Booty in Buganda: Some Observations on the Seizure of People in War c.1700–1890.” In Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa, edited by Médard, Henri and Doyle, Shane, 145–60. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Roscoe, John. 1911. The Baganda: An Account of Their Native Customs and Beliefs. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Roscoe, John. 1924. The Northern Bantu: An Account of Some Central African Tribes of the Uganda Protectorate. Cambridge, U.K.: University Press.Google Scholar
Saidi, Christine. 2010. Women’s Authority and Society in Early East-Central Africa. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
Sacks, Karen. 1979. Sisters and Wives: The Past and Future of Sexual Equality. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Schoenbrun, David Lee. 1997. The Historical Reconstruction of Great Lakes Bantu Cultural Vocabulary: Etymologies and Distributions. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.Google Scholar
Schoenbrun, David Lee. 1998. A Green Place, A Good Place: Agrarian Change, Gender, and Social Identity in the Great Lakes Region to the 15th Century. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Shadle, Brett L. 2006.“Girl Cases”: Marriage and Colonialism in Gusiiland, Kenya, 1890–1970. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Snoxall, R. A., comp. 1967. Luganda–English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Speke, John Hanning. 1864. Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile. New York: Harper & Brothers.Google Scholar
Stephens, Rhiannon. 2009. “Lineage and Society in Precolonial Uganda.” Journal of African History 50: 203–21.Google Scholar
Stephens, Rhiannon. 2013. A History of African Motherhood: The Case of Uganda, 700–1900. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Thomas, Lynn M. 2003. Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Tuck, Michael W. 2007. “Women’s Experiences of Enslavement and Slavery in Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth-Century Uganda.” In Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa, edited by Médard, Henri and Doyle, Shane, 174–88. Oxford: James Curry.Google Scholar
Vansina, Jan. 2004. How Societies Are Born: Governance in West Central Africa before 1600. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar