Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T08:58:14.548Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Reform and Political Impunity in Kenya: Transparency without Accountability

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 October 2013

Abstract:

Kenya has been going through a period of political reform since 1991, when section 2A of the constitution, which had made Kenya a de jure one-party state, was repealed. This reform followed a prolonged struggle on the part of citizens both inside and outside the country, and their call for democracy was one that, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, was embraced by Western countries. Via diplomatic pressure and conditionality on aid, Western donors played an important role in the repeal of section 2A, the return of multiparty elections, and the creation and reform of a number of political institutions and offices via a separation of powers. But although these changes were supported by the political opposition and much of civil society in Kenya, they did not rise organically from the national struggle over political power. Nor did these reforms lead to a determination in the country to hold the political elite accountable for their transgressions. This article argues that modern Kenya's history of economic and political inequality has resulted in a population whose very divisions make it difficult for politicians to be disciplined. Accountability has two dimensions: the horizontal accountability among branches of government that is assured by checks and balances, and the vertical accountability of the state to its citizens. Vertical accountability depends on a constituency of like-minded citizens defending broad national interests, or an electorate with a collective identity or set of identities attached to the Kenyan nation. But in the absence of such shared goals and demands, narrow personal and local interests prevail, and politicians remain unaccountable to the nation as a whole.

Résumé:

Résumé:

Le Kenya traverse une période de réformes politiques depuis 1991, lorsque la section 2A de la constitution, qui avait jusque-là fait du Kenya un état à parti unique de droit, a été révoquée. Cette réforme est arrivée à la suite d'un long combat impliquant les citoyens à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur du pays, leur appel à la démocratic ayant été soutenu par les pays occidentaux après la chute du mur de Berlin. Avec l'appui d'une pression diplomatique et de conditions placées sur l'aide humanitaire, les donateurs de fonds occidentaux ont joué un rôle important dans le rejet de la section 2A, le retour aux élections multipartites, à la création et aux réformes d'un certain nombre d'institutions politiques via le principe de séparation des pouvoirs. Mais bien que ces changements aient été soutenus par l'opposition et la plupart de la société civile du Kenya, ils n'ont pas été l'aboutissement naturel d'un combat national pour la prise de pouvoir politique. Ces réformes n'ont pas mené non plus à un engagement déterminé dans le pays d'exiger que l'élite politique rende des comptes sur ses transgressions et abus de pouvoir. Cet article postule que la présence d'inégalités économiques et politiques dans l'histoire moderne du Kenya a engendré des divisions au sein de la population kenyane qui n'aident pas les pouvoirs politiques à faire preuve de discipline. La notion de responsabilité se présente sur deux dimensions : la responsabilité horizontale à l'intérieur des branches du gouvernement qui est assurée par un système de vérifications et de comptes-rendus, et la responsabilité verticale de l'état envers ses constituants. La responsabilité verticale dépend d'un ensemble de citoyens unis par des intérêts larges qu'ils défendent, ou sur un électorat avec soit une identité collective, soit un ensemble d'identités attachées à la nation kenyane. Or, en léabsence d'une vision unifiée et d'attentes communes, les intérêts locaux et personnels prennent le pas sur l'intérêt commun, et les pouvoirs politiques ne sont pas tenus de rendre des comptes à la nation dans son ensemble.

Type
ASR Focus: The Political Economy of Democratic Reform in Kenya
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Amutabi, Maurice N. 2002. “Crisis and Student Protest in Universities in Kenya.” African Studies Review 45 (2): 157–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bachman, Jan, and Honke, Jana. 2010. “‘Peace and Security’ as Counterterrorism? The Political Effects of Liberal Interventions.” African Affairs 109 (434): 97114.Google Scholar
Barkan, Joel D., and Matiangi, Fred. 2009. “Kenya's Tortuous Path to Successful Legislative Development.” In Legislative Power in Emerging African Democracies, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 3372. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Branch, Daniel. 2009. Defeating Mau Mau, Creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, Civil War, and Decolonization. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Branch, Daniel. 2011. Kenya Between Hope and Despair, 1963–2011. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Branch, Daniel, and Cheeseman, Nicholas. 2006. “The Politics of Control in Kenya: Understanding the Bureaucratic-Executive State, 1952–78.” Review of African Political Economy 107: 1131.Google Scholar
Branch, Daniel, and Cheeseman, Nicholas. 2010. “Conclusion: The Failure of Nation-Building and the Kenya Crisis.” In Our Turn to Eat: Politics in Kenya Since 1950, edited by Branch, Daniel, Cheeseman, Nicholas, and Gardner, Leigh, 243–57. Berlin: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar
Bratton, Michael, and Kimenyi, Mwangi. 2008. “Voting in Kenya: Putting Ethnicity in Perspective.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 2(2): 272–89.Google Scholar
Brown, Stephen. 2001. “Authoritarian Leaders and Multiparty Elections in Africa: How Foreign Donors Help to Keep Kenya's Daniel arap Moi in Power.” Third World Quarterly 22(5): 725–39.Google Scholar
Brown, Stephen. 2007. “From Demiurge to Midwife: Changing Donor Roles in Kenya's Democratisation Process.” In Kenya: The Struggle for Democracy, edited by Murunga, Godwin R. and Nasong'o, Shadrack W., 301–29. New York: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Chege, Michael. 1987. “The State and Labour in Kenya.” In Popular Strugghs for Democracy in Africa, edited by Nyong'o, Peter Anyang', 248–64. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Furedi, Fred. 1973. “The African Crowd in Nairobi: Popular Movements and Elite Politics.” Journal of African History 14 (2): 275-90.Google Scholar
Gifford, Paul. 2009. Christianity Politics and Public Life in Kenya. London: Hurst and Company.Google Scholar
Mwangi wa, Gīthīnji. 2000. Ten Millionaires and Ten Million Beggars: A Study of Income Distribution and Development in Kenya. Burlington, Vt.: Aldershot.Google Scholar
Mwangi wa, Gīthīnji. 2010. “Growing Unequally: An Audit of the Impact of Kenya's Vision 2030 Growth on Equality.” In Kenya's Vision 2030: An Audit from an Income and Gender Inequalities Perspective, 140. Nairobi: Society for International Development.Google Scholar
Mwangi wa, Gīthīnji. 2011. “Erasing Class/(re)Creating Ethnicity: Politics, Jobs, Accumulation and Identity in Kenya” Paper presented at the Mellon Sawyer Workshop on Ethnicity, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, November.Google Scholar
Mwangi wa, Gīthīnji, and Holmquist, Frank. 2008. “Kenya's Hopes and Impediments: The Anatomy of a Crisis of Exclusion.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 2 (2): 344–58.Google Scholar
Mwangi wa, Gīthīnji, and Holmquist, Frank. 2009. “The Default Politics of Ethnicity in Kenya.” Brown Journal of World AffairsW (1): 101–17.Google Scholar
Holmquist, Frank. 1984. “The State and Peasant Leverage in Kenya.” Africa 54 (3): 7291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmquist, Frank, and Ford, Michael. 1994. “Kenya: State and Civil Society the First Year After the Election.” Africa Today 41 (4): 525.Google Scholar
Holmquist, Frank, and Oendo, Ayuka. 2001. “Kenya: Democracy, Decline, and Despair.” CurrentHistory 100 (646): 201–6.Google Scholar
Kanyinga, Karuti. 2006. “Ethnicity, Inequality and Public Sector Governance in Kenya. In Ethnic Inequalities and Public Sector Governance, edited by Ban-gura, Yusuf, 261–81. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kanyinga, Karuti, Okello, Duncan, and Akech, Akoko. 2010. “Contradictions of Transition to Democracy in Fragmented Societies: The Kenya 2007 General Elections in Perspective.” In Tensions and Reversals in Democratic Transitions: The Kenya 2007 General Elections, edited by Kanyinga, Karuti and Okello, Duncan, 128. Nairobi: Society for International Development and the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi.Google Scholar
Klopp, Jacqueline M., and Orina, Janai R.. 2002. “University Crisis and Student Activism in Kenya.” African Studies Review, 45 (1): 4376.Google Scholar
Knighton, Ben, ed. 2009. Religion and Politics in Kenya: Essays in Honor of a Meddlesome Priest. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Knighton, Ben. 2010. “Going for cai at Gatundu: Reversion to a Kikuyu Ethnic Past or Building a Kenyan National Future.” In Our Turn to Eat: Politics in Kenya Since 1950, edited by Branch, Daniel, Cheeseman, Nicholas, and Gardner, Leigh, 107–28. Berlin: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar
Lindberg, Staffan I. 2006. “The Surprising Significance of African Elections.” Journal of Democracy 17 (1): 139–51.Google Scholar
Lynch, Gabrielle. 2011. I Say to You: Ethnic Politics and the Kalenjin in Kenya. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michael, Sarah. 2004. Undermining Development: The Absence of Power Among Local NGOs in Africa. Bloomington: Indiana Unversity Press.Google Scholar
Mkandawire, Thandika. 2010. “Aid, Accountability, and Democracy in Africa.” Social Research 77 (4): 1149–82.Google Scholar
Mueller, Susanne. 2008. “The Political Economy of Kenya's Crisis.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 2 (2): 185210.Google Scholar
Mueller, Susanne. 2010. “Government and Opposition in Kenya, 1966–69.” Our Turn to Eat: Politics in Kenya Since 1950, edited by Branch, Daniel, Cheeseman, Nicholas, and Gardner, Leigh, 77105. Berlin: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar
Mutua, Makau. 2008. Kenya's Quest for Democracy: Taming Leviathan. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Mutunga, Willy. 1999. Constitution-Makingfrom the Middle: Civil Society and Transition Politics in Kenya, 1992–1997. Nairobi: SAREAT.Google Scholar
Mwangola, Mshai S. 2007. “Leaders of Tomorrow? The Youth and Democratisation in Kenya.” In Kenya: The Struggle for Democracy, edited by Murunga, Godwin R. and Nasong'o, Shadrack W., 129–63. New York: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Nasong'o, Shadrack Wanjala. 2005. Contending Political Paradigms in Africa: Rationality and the Politics of Democratization in Kenya and Zambia. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Nyong'o, P. A. 1989. “State and Society in Kenya: The Disintegration of the Nationalist Coalition and the Rise of Presidential Authoritarianism, 1963–78.” African Affairs 88(351):229–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Donnell, Guillermo. 1997. “Horizontal Accountability in New Democracies.” In The Self-Restraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies, edited by Schedler, Andreas, Diamond, Larry, and Plattner, Marc F., 2952. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Okoth-Ogendo, H. W. O. 1972. “The Politics of Constitutional Change in Kenya since Independence, 1963–69.” African Affairs 71 (282): 934.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oloo, Adams. 2010. “Party Mobilization and Membership: Old and New Identities in Kenyan Politics.” In Tensions and Reversals in Democratic Transitions: The Kenya 2007 General Elections, edited by Kanyinga, Karuti and Okello, Duncan, 3159. Nairobi: Society for International Development and Institute for Development Studies.Google Scholar
Orvis, Stephen. 2003. “Kenyan Civil Society: Bridging the Urban-Rural Divide?Journal of Modern African Studies 41 (2): 247–68.Google Scholar
Press, Robert M. 2008. Peaceful Resistance: Advancing Human Rights and Democratic Freedoms. Burlingon, Vt.: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Prestholdt, Jeremy. 2011. “Kenya, the United States, and Counterterrorism.” Africa Today 57 (4): 327.Google Scholar
Sabar, Galia. 2002. Church, State and Society in Kenya: From Mediation to Opposition 1963–1993. London: Frank Cass.Google Scholar
Sandbrook, Richard. 1975. Proletarians and African Capitalism: The Kenyan Case 1962–70. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sklar, Richard A. 1997. “Democracy and Constitutionalism.” In The Self-Restraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies, edited by Schedler, Andreas, Diamond, Larry, and Plattner, Marc F., 5358. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Throup, David. 1987. “The Construction and Destruction of the Kenyatta State.” In The Political Economy of Kenya, edited by Schatzberg, Michael G., 3374. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Throup, David, and Hornsby, Charles. 1998. Multi-party Politics in Kenya. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar