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Development and Progress as Historical Phenomena in Tanzania: “Maendeleo? We Had That in the Past”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 April 2016

Robert M. Ahearne
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Abstract:

Academic discussions of development continue to grow, yet critical engagements with communities affected by development interventions remain limited. Drawing from life history interviews conducted in southern Tanzania, this article details the varied experiences of development interventions among older people and how these affect broader understandings of progress. Many juxtapose their negative views of ujamaa villagization with more positive recollections of previous interventions (especially the Groundnut Scheme), which are infused with what is described here as “development nostalgia.” Perceptions of the past clearly inform the social, political, and economic aspirations forwarded today, with the richness of the constructed narratives adding further nuance to existing depictions of Tanzanian historiography.

Résumé:

Bien qu’il y ait de plus en plus de discussions académiques sur le sujet du développement, les engagements critiques avec les communautés touchées par les interventions de développement restent limités. À partir d’entretiens basés sur des expériences personnelles menés dans le sud de la Tanzanie, cet article détaille diverses expériences d’interventions de développement auprès de personnes âgées et comment cela contribue à une compréhension plus large du progrès. Bien des personnes juxtaposent leurs points de vue négatifs de la villagisation Ujamaa avec des souvenirs plus positifs des interventions précédentes (surtout, le système de l’arachide), qui sont imprégnées de ce qui est décrit ici comme “le développement nostalgie.” Les perceptions du passé nous renseignent clairement sur les aspirations sociales, politiques et économiques transmises aujourd’hui, la richesse des récits construits ajoutant des nuances supplémentaires à la représentation existante de l’historiographie de la Tanzanie.

Keywords

TanzaniaMtwaraMikindaniDihimbadevelopmentGroundnut Schemeujamaavillagization
Type
ARTICLES
Information
African Studies Review , Volume 59 , Issue 1 , April 2016 , pp. 77 - 96
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2016 

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References

References

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Aisha, Ali, age 65, farmer and sisal cutter, Mikindani, February 10, 2010.Google Scholar
Ali Ahmadi Chap, Chap, age 80, Mozambican (lived in Dihimba since the civil war), retired fisherman, Dihimba, July 12, 2009.Google Scholar
Ali, Adeni, age 80, port worker and farmer, Mikindani, May 15, 2009.Google Scholar
Asha Hassani, Barakati, age 68, farmer (whose family was forced to move during villagization), Dihimba, May 8, 2009.Google Scholar
Fikiri, Selemani, age 80–85, farmer, Mikindani, October 9, 2009.Google Scholar
Hamisi, Musa, age 75, worked on railway construction, a former CCM ward executive and an entrepreneur, Mikindani, July 22, 2009.Google Scholar
Hadija, Selemani, age ∼80, farmer and shop worker, Mikindani, November 25, 2009.Google Scholar
Mohammedi, Kidume, age 85, wage laborer on railway line for the Groundnut Scheme, April 24, 2009.Google Scholar
Mohammedi, Hamisi, age 85–90, tool maker, retired farmer, and wage laborer on the Groundnut Scheme, Mikindani, March 4, 2010.Google Scholar
Mohammed, Masoudi, age 70, farmer, former CCM village chairman, railway builder and port worker, Dihimba, June 8, 2009.Google Scholar
Mohammedi, Musa, age 65–70, carpenter and farmer (son of a railway worker for the Groundnut Scheme), Dihimba, January 29, 2010.Google Scholar
Mzee, Nguruwe (pseudonym), age 73, forestry expert, gardener, and NGO translator, Mikindani, April 10, 2009.Google Scholar
Salumu Hassan, Sululu, age 72, village chairman, retired farmer, worked on building the railway, Dihimba, September 8, 2009.Google Scholar
Selemani Abdalla, Likolo, age 66, CCM ward chairman, cashew nut farmer and former fisherman, Mikindani, July 25, 2012.Google Scholar
Shuwea, Mohammedi, age ∼90, farmer and migrant from Lindi (moved to live with family during villagization), Dihimba, April 22, 2009.Google Scholar
Abrahamsen, Rita. 2003. “African Studies and the Postcolonial Challenge.” African Affairs 102: 189–210.Google Scholar
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Bissell, William C. 2005. “Engaging Colonial Nostalgia.” Cultural Anthropology 20 (2): 215–48.Google Scholar
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Bryceson, Deborah H. 2002. “The Scramble in Africa.” World Development 30 (5): 725–39.Google Scholar
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Ellis, Stephen. 2002. “Writing Histories of Contemporary Africa.” Journal of African History 43: 1–26.Google Scholar
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Ferguson, James. 1999. Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meaning of Urban Life on the Zambian Copperbelt. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ferguson, James. 2006. Global Shadows: Africa in the Neoliberal World Order. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
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Green, Maia. 2000. “Participatory Development and the Appropriation of Agency in Southern Tanzania.” Critique of Anthropology 20 (1): 67–89.Google Scholar
Harrison, Graham. 2008. “From the Global to the Local? Governance and Development at the Local Level: Reflections from Tanzania.” Journal of Modern African Studies 46 (2): 169–89.Google Scholar
Havnevik, Kjell J. 1993. Tanzania: The Limits to Development From Above. Motala, Sweden: Motala Grafiska AB.Google Scholar
Hodge, Joseph M. 2007. Triumph of the Expert: Agrarian Doctrines of Development and the Legacies of British Colonialism. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Hodgson, Dorothy L. 2000. “Taking Stock: State Control, Ethnic Identity and Pastoralist Development in Tanganyika, 1948–1958.” Journal of African History 41: 55–78.Google Scholar
Hunter, Emma. 2008. “Revisiting Ujamaa: Political Legitimacy and the Construction of Community in Post-Colonial Tanzania.” Journal of East African Studies 2 (3): 471–85.Google Scholar
Jennings, Michael. 2002. “‘Almost an Oxfam in Itself’: Oxfam, Ujamaa and Development in Tanzania.” African Affairs 101: 509–30.Google Scholar
Jennings, Michael. 2003. “We Must Run While Others Walk: Popular Participation and Development Crisis in Tanzania, 1961–69.” Journal of Modern African Studies 41 (2): 163–87.Google Scholar
Jennings, Michael. 2008. Surrogates of the State: NGOs, Development, and Ujamaa in Tanzania. Bloomfield, Conn.: Kumarian Press.Google Scholar
Kamat, Vinay. 2008. “This Is Not Our Culture! Discourses of Nostalgia and Narratives of Health Concerns in Post-Socialist Tanzania.” Africa 78 (3): 359–83.Google Scholar
Katz, Cindi. 2004. Growing up Global: Economic Restructuring and Children’s Everyday Lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Killian, Bernadeta. 2003. “Impacts of Finnish Aid in Forestry and Rural Development.” Dar-es-Salaam: Department of Political Science, University of Dar-es-Salaam.Google Scholar
Klager, Gabriel. 2013. “Introduction: The Perils and Possibilities of African Roads.” Africa 83 (3): 359–66.Google Scholar
Kothari, Uma. 2005. “From Colonial Administration to Development Studies: A Post-Colonial Critique of the History of Development Studies.” In A Radical History of Development Studies, edited by Kothari, Uma, 47–66. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Lal, Priya. 2010. “Militants, Mothers, and the National Family: Ujamaa, Gender, and Rural Development in Postcolonial Tanzania.” Journal of African History 51: 1–20.Google Scholar
Lal, Priya. 2012. “Self-Reliance and the State: The Multiple Meanings of Development in Early Post-Colonial Tanzania.” Africa 82 (2): 212–34.Google Scholar
Lawi, Yusufu. 2005. “Between the ‘Global’ and ‘Local’ Families: The Missing Link in School Teaching in Postcolonial Tanzania.” In In Search of a Nation: Histories of Authority and Dissidence in Tanzania, edited by Maddox, Gregory H. and Giblin, James L., 290–305. Oxford: James Curry.Google Scholar
Maier, Karl. 1998. Into the House of the Ancestors: Inside the New Africa. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Mamdani, Mahmood. 1996. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. London: James Curry.Google Scholar
Marsland, Rebecca. 2007. “The Modern Traditional Healer: Locating ‘Hybridity’ in Modern Traditional Medicine, Southern Tanzania.” Journal of Southern African Studies 33 (4): 751–65.Google Scholar
Mashindano, Oswald, et al. 2011. “Agricultural Growth and Poverty Reduction in Tanzania 2000–2010.” Chronic Poverty Research Centre Working Paper 208: 1–40.Google Scholar
Masquelier, Adeline. 2002. “Road Mythographies: Space, Mobility, and the Historical Imagination in Postcolonial Niger.” American Ethnologist 29 (4): 829–55.Google Scholar
Mercer, Claire C. 2002. “The Discourse of Maendeleo and the Politics of Women’s Participation on Mount Kilimanjaro.” Development and Change 33: 101–27.Google Scholar
Morton, Christopher. 2007. “Remembering the House: Memory and Materiality in Northern Botswana.” Journal of Material Culture 12 (2): 157–79.Google Scholar
Myddelton, D. R. 2007. They Meant Well: Government Project Disasters. London: The Institute of Economic Affairs.Google Scholar
Nyerere, Julius K. 1973. Freedom and Development: A Selection from Writings and Speeches 1968–1973. Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Piot, Charles. 2010. Nostalgia for the Future: West Africa after the Cold War. London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Pitcher, M. Anne, and Askew, Kelly M.. 2006. “African Socialisms and Postsocialisms.” Africa 76 (1): 1–14.Google Scholar
Ranger, Terence. 1996. “Postscript: Colonial and Postcolonial Identities.” In Postcolonial Identities in Africa, edited by Werbner, Richard and Ranger, Terence, 271–81. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Reef, Anne. 2008. “African Words, Academic Choices: Re-presenting Interviews and Oral Histories.” History in Africa 35: 419–38.Google Scholar
Rizzo, Matteo. 2006. “What Was Left of the Groundnut Scheme? Development Disaster and Labour Market in Southern Tanganyika 1946–1952.” Journal of Agrarian Change 6 (2): 205–38.Google Scholar
Rizzo, Matteo. 2009. “Becoming Wealthy: The Life-History of a Rural Entrepreneur in Tanzania, 1922–80s.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 3 (2): 221–39.Google Scholar
Rosaldo, Renato. 1989. “Imperialist Nostalgia.” Representations 26: 107–22.Google Scholar
Sanders, Todd. 2008. “Buses in Bongoland: Seductive Analytics and the Occult.” Anthropological Theory 8 (2): 107–32.Google Scholar
Schneider, Leander. 2007. “High on Modernity? Explaining the Failing of Tanzanian Villagization.” African Studies 66: 9–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, James C. 1998. Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Seppälä, Pekka“Introduction.” In The Making of a Periphery: Economic Development and Cultural Encounters in Southern Tanzania, edited by Seppälä, Pekka and Koda, Bertha, 7–36. Stockholm: Elanders Gotab AB.Google Scholar
Seppälä, Pekka, and Koda, Bertha. 1998. The Making of a Periphery: Economic Development and Cultural Encounters in Southern Tanzania. Stockholm: Elanders Gotab AB.Google Scholar
Spivak, Gayatri C. 1999. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Stewart, Kathleen. 1988. “Nostalgia: A Polemic.” Cultural Anthropology 3 (3): 227–41.Google Scholar
Tonkin, Elizabeth. 1992. Narrating Our Pasts: The Social Construction of Oral History. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Toohey, Peter. 2003. “The Cultural Logic of Historical Periodization.” In Handbook of Historical Sociology, edited by Delanty, Gerard and Isin, Engin F., 208–20. London: Sage.Google Scholar
United Republic of Tanzania. 2009. Mtwara Region Village Statistics. Mtwara: Regional Government Offices.Google Scholar
Van Beusekom, Monica M. 2000. “Disjunctures in Theory and Practice: Making Sense of Change in Agricultural Development at the Office Du Niger 1920–1960.” Journal of African History 41: 79–99.Google Scholar
Van Beusekom, Monica M., and Hodgson, Dorothy L.. 2000. “Lessons Learned? Development Experiences in the Late Colonial Period.” Journal of African History 41: 29–33.Google Scholar
Wembah-Rashid, J. A. R. 1998. “Is Culture in South-Eastern Tanzania Development Unfriendly?” In The Making of a Periphery: Economic Development and Cultural Encounters in Southern Tanzania, edited by Seppälä, Pekka and Koda, Bertha, 39–57. Stockholm: Elanders Gotab AB.Google Scholar
Werbner, Richard. 1998. “Introduction: Beyond Oblivion, Confronting Memory Crisis.” In Memory and the Postcolony: African Anthropology and the Critique of Power, edited by Werbner, Richard, 1–17. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Ahmadi, Shaibu, age 68, farmer and driver, Mikindani, June 29, 2009.Google Scholar
Aisha, Ali, age 65, farmer and sisal cutter, Mikindani, February 10, 2010.Google Scholar
Ali Ahmadi Chap, Chap, age 80, Mozambican (lived in Dihimba since the civil war), retired fisherman, Dihimba, July 12, 2009.Google Scholar
Ali, Adeni, age 80, port worker and farmer, Mikindani, May 15, 2009.Google Scholar
Asha Hassani, Barakati, age 68, farmer (whose family was forced to move during villagization), Dihimba, May 8, 2009.Google Scholar
Fikiri, Selemani, age 80–85, farmer, Mikindani, October 9, 2009.Google Scholar
Hamisi, Musa, age 75, worked on railway construction, a former CCM ward executive and an entrepreneur, Mikindani, July 22, 2009.Google Scholar
Hadija, Selemani, age ∼80, farmer and shop worker, Mikindani, November 25, 2009.Google Scholar
Mohammedi, Kidume, age 85, wage laborer on railway line for the Groundnut Scheme, April 24, 2009.Google Scholar
Mohammedi, Hamisi, age 85–90, tool maker, retired farmer, and wage laborer on the Groundnut Scheme, Mikindani, March 4, 2010.Google Scholar
Mohammed, Masoudi, age 70, farmer, former CCM village chairman, railway builder and port worker, Dihimba, June 8, 2009.Google Scholar
Mohammedi, Musa, age 65–70, carpenter and farmer (son of a railway worker for the Groundnut Scheme), Dihimba, January 29, 2010.Google Scholar
Mzee, Nguruwe (pseudonym), age 73, forestry expert, gardener, and NGO translator, Mikindani, April 10, 2009.Google Scholar
Salumu Hassan, Sululu, age 72, village chairman, retired farmer, worked on building the railway, Dihimba, September 8, 2009.Google Scholar
Selemani Abdalla, Likolo, age 66, CCM ward chairman, cashew nut farmer and former fisherman, Mikindani, July 25, 2012.Google Scholar
Shuwea, Mohammedi, age ∼90, farmer and migrant from Lindi (moved to live with family during villagization), Dihimba, April 22, 2009.Google Scholar
Abrahamsen, Rita. 2003. “African Studies and the Postcolonial Challenge.” African Affairs 102: 189–210.Google Scholar
Ahearne, Robert M. 2011. “Understanding Contemporary Development: Life Narratives of Intervention.” PhD. diss., University of Manchester.Google Scholar
Ahearne, Robert M. 2013. “The Untold Story of Tanzania’s Resource Curse.” Think Africa Press. http://thinkafricapress.com.Google Scholar
Ahearne, Robert M. 2014. “‘Le développement? C’est du passé’. Une lecture historique des récits du progrès dans la Tanzanie du Sud.” Politique Africaine 135: 23–46.Google Scholar
Appadurai, Arjun. 2004. “The Capacity to Aspire: Culture and the Terms of Recognition.” In Culture and Public Action, edited by Rao, Vijayvendra and Walton, Michael, 59–84. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Askew, Kelly M. 2006. “Sung and Unsung: Musical Reflections on Tanzanian Postsocialisms.” Africa 76 (1): 15–43.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Henry. 1981. “Notes on State and Peasantry: The Tanzanian Case.” Review of African Political Economy 8 (21): 44–62.Google Scholar
Berry, Sara. 2000. “Afterword.” Journal of African History 41: 127–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bissell, William C. 2005. “Engaging Colonial Nostalgia.” Cultural Anthropology 20 (2): 215–48.Google Scholar
Brennan, James R. 2006. “Blood Enemies: Exploitation and Urban Citizenship in the Nationalist Political Thought of Tanzania, 1958–1975.” Journal of African History 47: 389–413.Google Scholar
Bryceson, Deborah H. 2002. “The Scramble in Africa.” World Development 30 (5): 725–39.Google Scholar
The Citizen (Tanzania). 2009. “Tanzania: Kikwete—Beware of Foreign Land Grabbers.” http://allafrica.com.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 1997. “Modernizing Bureaucrats, Backwards Africans, and the Development Concept.” In International Development and the Social Sciences, edited by Cooper, Frederick and Packard, Randall, 64–92. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Crewe, Emma, and Harrison, Elizabeth. 1998. Whose Development? An Ethnography of Aid. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Crush, Jonathan. 1995. “Imagining Development.” In Power of Development, edited by Crush, Jonathan, 1–26. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Da Corta, Lucia, and Price, Laurence. 2009. “Poverty and Growth in Remote Villages in Tanzania (2004–2008): Insights from Village Voices Film Research.” CPRC Working Paper 153: 4–60.Google Scholar
Ellis, Stephen. 2002. “Writing Histories of Contemporary Africa.” Journal of African History 43: 1–26.Google Scholar
Ergas, Zaki. 1980. “Why Did the Ujamaa Policy Fail? Towards a Global Analysis.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 18 (3): 387–410.Google Scholar
Ferguson, James. 1999. Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meaning of Urban Life on the Zambian Copperbelt. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ferguson, James. 2006. Global Shadows: Africa in the Neoliberal World Order. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Grace, Joshua. 2013. “Heroes of the Road: Race, Gender and the Politics of Mobility in Twentieth Century Tanzania.” Africa 83 (3): 403–25.Google Scholar
Green, Maia. 2000. “Participatory Development and the Appropriation of Agency in Southern Tanzania.” Critique of Anthropology 20 (1): 67–89.Google Scholar
Harrison, Graham. 2008. “From the Global to the Local? Governance and Development at the Local Level: Reflections from Tanzania.” Journal of Modern African Studies 46 (2): 169–89.Google Scholar
Havnevik, Kjell J. 1993. Tanzania: The Limits to Development From Above. Motala, Sweden: Motala Grafiska AB.Google Scholar
Hodge, Joseph M. 2007. Triumph of the Expert: Agrarian Doctrines of Development and the Legacies of British Colonialism. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Hodgson, Dorothy L. 2000. “Taking Stock: State Control, Ethnic Identity and Pastoralist Development in Tanganyika, 1948–1958.” Journal of African History 41: 55–78.Google Scholar
Hunter, Emma. 2008. “Revisiting Ujamaa: Political Legitimacy and the Construction of Community in Post-Colonial Tanzania.” Journal of East African Studies 2 (3): 471–85.Google Scholar
Jennings, Michael. 2002. “‘Almost an Oxfam in Itself’: Oxfam, Ujamaa and Development in Tanzania.” African Affairs 101: 509–30.Google Scholar
Jennings, Michael. 2003. “We Must Run While Others Walk: Popular Participation and Development Crisis in Tanzania, 1961–69.” Journal of Modern African Studies 41 (2): 163–87.Google Scholar
Jennings, Michael. 2008. Surrogates of the State: NGOs, Development, and Ujamaa in Tanzania. Bloomfield, Conn.: Kumarian Press.Google Scholar
Kamat, Vinay. 2008. “This Is Not Our Culture! Discourses of Nostalgia and Narratives of Health Concerns in Post-Socialist Tanzania.” Africa 78 (3): 359–83.Google Scholar
Katz, Cindi. 2004. Growing up Global: Economic Restructuring and Children’s Everyday Lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Killian, Bernadeta. 2003. “Impacts of Finnish Aid in Forestry and Rural Development.” Dar-es-Salaam: Department of Political Science, University of Dar-es-Salaam.Google Scholar
Klager, Gabriel. 2013. “Introduction: The Perils and Possibilities of African Roads.” Africa 83 (3): 359–66.Google Scholar
Kothari, Uma. 2005. “From Colonial Administration to Development Studies: A Post-Colonial Critique of the History of Development Studies.” In A Radical History of Development Studies, edited by Kothari, Uma, 47–66. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Lal, Priya. 2010. “Militants, Mothers, and the National Family: Ujamaa, Gender, and Rural Development in Postcolonial Tanzania.” Journal of African History 51: 1–20.Google Scholar
Lal, Priya. 2012. “Self-Reliance and the State: The Multiple Meanings of Development in Early Post-Colonial Tanzania.” Africa 82 (2): 212–34.Google Scholar
Lawi, Yusufu. 2005. “Between the ‘Global’ and ‘Local’ Families: The Missing Link in School Teaching in Postcolonial Tanzania.” In In Search of a Nation: Histories of Authority and Dissidence in Tanzania, edited by Maddox, Gregory H. and Giblin, James L., 290–305. Oxford: James Curry.Google Scholar
Maier, Karl. 1998. Into the House of the Ancestors: Inside the New Africa. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Mamdani, Mahmood. 1996. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. London: James Curry.Google Scholar
Marsland, Rebecca. 2007. “The Modern Traditional Healer: Locating ‘Hybridity’ in Modern Traditional Medicine, Southern Tanzania.” Journal of Southern African Studies 33 (4): 751–65.Google Scholar
Mashindano, Oswald, et al. 2011. “Agricultural Growth and Poverty Reduction in Tanzania 2000–2010.” Chronic Poverty Research Centre Working Paper 208: 1–40.Google Scholar
Masquelier, Adeline. 2002. “Road Mythographies: Space, Mobility, and the Historical Imagination in Postcolonial Niger.” American Ethnologist 29 (4): 829–55.Google Scholar
Mercer, Claire C. 2002. “The Discourse of Maendeleo and the Politics of Women’s Participation on Mount Kilimanjaro.” Development and Change 33: 101–27.Google Scholar
Morton, Christopher. 2007. “Remembering the House: Memory and Materiality in Northern Botswana.” Journal of Material Culture 12 (2): 157–79.Google Scholar
Myddelton, D. R. 2007. They Meant Well: Government Project Disasters. London: The Institute of Economic Affairs.Google Scholar
Nyerere, Julius K. 1973. Freedom and Development: A Selection from Writings and Speeches 1968–1973. Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Piot, Charles. 2010. Nostalgia for the Future: West Africa after the Cold War. London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Pitcher, M. Anne, and Askew, Kelly M.. 2006. “African Socialisms and Postsocialisms.” Africa 76 (1): 1–14.Google Scholar
Ranger, Terence. 1996. “Postscript: Colonial and Postcolonial Identities.” In Postcolonial Identities in Africa, edited by Werbner, Richard and Ranger, Terence, 271–81. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Reef, Anne. 2008. “African Words, Academic Choices: Re-presenting Interviews and Oral Histories.” History in Africa 35: 419–38.Google Scholar
Rizzo, Matteo. 2006. “What Was Left of the Groundnut Scheme? Development Disaster and Labour Market in Southern Tanganyika 1946–1952.” Journal of Agrarian Change 6 (2): 205–38.Google Scholar
Rizzo, Matteo. 2009. “Becoming Wealthy: The Life-History of a Rural Entrepreneur in Tanzania, 1922–80s.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 3 (2): 221–39.Google Scholar
Rosaldo, Renato. 1989. “Imperialist Nostalgia.” Representations 26: 107–22.Google Scholar
Sanders, Todd. 2008. “Buses in Bongoland: Seductive Analytics and the Occult.” Anthropological Theory 8 (2): 107–32.Google Scholar
Schneider, Leander. 2007. “High on Modernity? Explaining the Failing of Tanzanian Villagization.” African Studies 66: 9–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, James C. 1998. Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Seppälä, Pekka“Introduction.” In The Making of a Periphery: Economic Development and Cultural Encounters in Southern Tanzania, edited by Seppälä, Pekka and Koda, Bertha, 7–36. Stockholm: Elanders Gotab AB.Google Scholar
Seppälä, Pekka, and Koda, Bertha. 1998. The Making of a Periphery: Economic Development and Cultural Encounters in Southern Tanzania. Stockholm: Elanders Gotab AB.Google Scholar
Spivak, Gayatri C. 1999. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Stewart, Kathleen. 1988. “Nostalgia: A Polemic.” Cultural Anthropology 3 (3): 227–41.Google Scholar
Tonkin, Elizabeth. 1992. Narrating Our Pasts: The Social Construction of Oral History. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Toohey, Peter. 2003. “The Cultural Logic of Historical Periodization.” In Handbook of Historical Sociology, edited by Delanty, Gerard and Isin, Engin F., 208–20. London: Sage.Google Scholar
United Republic of Tanzania. 2009. Mtwara Region Village Statistics. Mtwara: Regional Government Offices.Google Scholar
Van Beusekom, Monica M. 2000. “Disjunctures in Theory and Practice: Making Sense of Change in Agricultural Development at the Office Du Niger 1920–1960.” Journal of African History 41: 79–99.Google Scholar
Van Beusekom, Monica M., and Hodgson, Dorothy L.. 2000. “Lessons Learned? Development Experiences in the Late Colonial Period.” Journal of African History 41: 29–33.Google Scholar
Wembah-Rashid, J. A. R. 1998. “Is Culture in South-Eastern Tanzania Development Unfriendly?” In The Making of a Periphery: Economic Development and Cultural Encounters in Southern Tanzania, edited by Seppälä, Pekka and Koda, Bertha, 39–57. Stockholm: Elanders Gotab AB.Google Scholar
Werbner, Richard. 1998. “Introduction: Beyond Oblivion, Confronting Memory Crisis.” In Memory and the Postcolony: African Anthropology and the Critique of Power, edited by Werbner, Richard, 1–17. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar