Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T15:27:53.811Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Livestock mobility and the territorial state: South-Western Niger (1890–1920)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 July 2017

Abstract

Colonial rule in West Africa initiated the incorporation of mobile people, particularly pastoralists, into Western territorial states. This article reports on the early period of French colonial rule of the area that is now South-Western Niger – a strategically important area with respect to territorial competition among the French colonies of Dahomey and Soudan (later the colonies of Senegambia and Niger) as well as the British colony of Nigeria. Building from the study of contemporary patterns of livestock mobility and their logics, archival and secondary literatures are used to develop an understanding of dominant herd mobility patterns at the time (transhumance for grazing and trekking to distant markets); the importance of livestock as a source of tax revenue; colonial anxieties about the loss of livestock from within their borders; and efforts of colonial administrators to reduce the potential loss of livestock from their territories. This case illustrates the limitations of the territorial state model where the state lacks sufficient power over mobile subjects utilizing a sparse and fluctuating resource base. The actions of French administrators and Fulɓe pastoralists worked as a form of ‘hands-off’ negotiation, with each group monitoring and reacting to the actions of the other. Due to the limitations of colonial state control, the existence of boundaries elicited greater monitoring of livestock movements by colonial administrators but also increased the leverage held by mobile pastoralists as the French sought to increase the attractiveness of their territory to the principal managers of its wealth (livestock). The proximity of borders to the study area complicated the task of French colonial administrators, who necessarily became increasingly focused on monitoring the movements of their subjects (labour and capital) to avoid their possible escape as they moved within the borderlands of what is now South-Western Niger. The limits of colonial power to monitor and control these movements led administrators to initiate policies favouring pastoralists.

Résumé

C'est sous le régime colonial en Afrique de l'Ouest que les populations nomades, pastorales notamment, ont commencé à être incorporées dans des États territoriaux occidentaux. Cet article traite du début de la période coloniale française dans la région de l'actuel Sud-Ouest du Niger, une région d'importance stratégique en ce qui concerne la concurrence territoriale dans les colonies françaises du Dahomey et du Soudan (plus tard les colonies de Sénégambie et du Niger), et la colonie britannique du Nigeria. S'appuyant sur l’étude des schémas contemporains de mobilité du bétail et de leur logique, l'auteur utilise la littérature secondaire et archivistique pour chercher à comprendre les schémas dominants de mobilité du bétail à cette époque (la transhumance vers des pâturages et des marchés éloignés), l'importance du bétail en tant que source de revenu fiscal, les anxiétés coloniales autour de la perte de bétail à l'intérieur de leurs frontières et les efforts de l'administration coloniale pour réduire les pertes potentielles de bétail de leurs territoires. Ce cas illustre les limitations du modèle d’État territorial dans lequel l’État manque de pouvoir sur les sujets itinérants qui utilisent une base de ressources peu abondantes et variables. Les actions de l'administration française et des pasteurs peuls ont fonctionné comme une forme de négociation « non interventionniste », chaque groupe surveillant et réagissant aux actions de l'autre. En raison des limitations du contrôle de l’État colonial, l'existence de frontières a suscité une plus grande surveillance des mouvements de bétail par l'administration coloniale, mais elle a aussi accru le poids des pasteurs nomades au moment où les Français cherchaient à renforcer l'attractivité de leur territoire vis-à-vis des principaux gérants de sa richesse (le bétail). La proximité des frontières de la zone d’étude a compliqué la tâche de l'administration coloniale française qui se concentrait nécessairement de plus en plus sur la surveillance des mouvements de ses sujets (main-d’œuvre et capital) pour éviter qu'ils ne s’échappent lors de leurs déplacements dans les régions frontalières qui forment aujourd'hui le Sud-Ouest du Niger. Les limites du pouvoir colonial à surveiller et à contrôler ces mouvements ont conduit l'administration à lancer des politiques favorables aux pasteurs.

Type
Livestock: mobility, raiding and the state
Copyright
Copyright © International African Institute 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abadie, M. (1927) ‘La colonie du Niger’, Géographie 47 (3/4): 169–90.Google Scholar
Adebayo, A. G. (1995) ‘Jangali: Fulani pastoralists and colonial taxation in Northern Nigeria’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 28 (1): 113–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aldigé, E. (1918) ‘La peste bovine en Afrique Occidentale Française: étude de l'epizootie de 1915–1918’, Bulletin du Comité d’Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l'Afrique Occidentale Française 1918: 337–99.Google Scholar
Amadou, B. (1991) ‘Contribution à l’étude et à l'aménagement des ressources du milieu naturel: exemple de la colonisation des nouvelles terres et la dynamique des agrosystèmes le long du Goroubi au Niger’. PhD thesis, Institut de Géographie et d’Études Régionales, University of Bordeaux.Google Scholar
Anonymous (1895) ‘Français, anglais, et allemands dans l'arrière-pays du Dahomey’, Bulletin du Comité de l'Afrique Française 5: 206–15.Google Scholar
Atchy, A. A. (1976) ‘Contribution à l’étude de la transhumance en République Populaire du Benin’. PhD thesis, École Inter-États des Sciences et Médécine Veterinaires, University of Dakar.Google Scholar
Azarya, V. (1996) Nomads and the State in Africa: the political roots of marginality. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Ba, A. H. and Daget, J. (1984) L'Empire Peul du Macina (1818–1853). Abidjan: Les Nouvelles Éditions Africaines.Google Scholar
Baillaud, E. (1900) ‘Les territoires français du Niger: leur valeur économique’, Géographie 1900: 924.Google Scholar
Bassett, T. J. (1988) ‘The political ecology of peasant-herder conflicts in northern Ivory Coast’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 78 (3): 433–72.Google Scholar
Bassett, T. J. and Turner, M. D. (2007) ‘Sudden shift or migratory drift? Fulbe herd movements to the Sudano-Guinean region of West Africa’, Human Ecology 35 (1): 3349.Google Scholar
Beauvilain, A. (1977) Les Peuls du Dallol Bosso. Niamey, Niger: Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar
Behnke, R. H., Scoones, I. and Kerven, C. (eds) (1993) Range Ecology at Disequilibrium. London: Overseas Development Institute.Google Scholar
Beidi, B. H. (1993) Les Peuls du Dallol Bosso. Paris: Éditions Sépia.Google Scholar
Bellot, J.-M. (1980) ‘Kel Tamasheq du Gourma Nigerien et peul du Torodi: sociétés agropastorales en mutation’. PhD thesis, University of Bordeaux III.Google Scholar
Benoit, M. (1999) ‘Peuplement, violence endémique et rémanence de l'espace sauvage en Afrique de l'Ouest: le no man's land du “W” du Niger’, Espace Populations Sociétés 17 (1): 2952.Google Scholar
Berry, S. (1992) ‘Hegemony on a shoestring: indirect rule and access to agricultural land’, Africa 62 (3): 327–55.Google Scholar
Berry, S. (1993) No Condition is Permanent. Madison WI: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Bierschenk, T. (1992) ‘The creation of tradition: Fulani chiefs in Dahomey/Benin from the late 19th century’, Paideuma 39: 217–44.Google Scholar
Bollig, M. (1998) ‘The colonial encapsulation of the northwestern Namibian pastoral economy’, Africa 68 (4): 506–36.Google Scholar
Bonfiglioli, A. M. (1988) Dudal: histoire de famille et histoire de troupeau chez un groupe de Wodaabe du Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bonnet-Dupeyron, M. F. (1951) Carte de l’Élevage pour le Sénégal et la Mauritanie. Paris: Office de la Recherche Scientifique Outre-Mer, Ministère de la France d'Outre Mer.Google Scholar
Bradburd, D. (1996) ‘Towards an understanding of the fate of modern pastoralists: starting with the state’, Nomadic Peoples 38: 3748.Google Scholar
Chalfin, B. (2001) ‘Border zone trade and the economic boundaries of the state in North-East Ghana’, Africa 71 (2): 202–24.Google Scholar
Cissoko, S. M. (1968) ‘Famines et épidémies à Tombouctou et dans la boucle du Niger du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle’, Bulletin de l'IFAN: Série B 3: 806–21.Google Scholar
Clauzel, J. (1992) ‘L'administration coloniale française et les sociétés nomades dans l'ancienne Afrique occidentale française’, Politique Africaine 46: 99116.Google Scholar
Cleaver, F., Franks, T., Maganga, F. and Hall, K. (2013) ‘Institutions, security and pastoralism: exploring the limits of hybridity’, African Studies Review 56 (3): 165–89.Google Scholar
Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. (1988) Africa: endurance and change south of the Sahara. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Cormack, Z. (2016) ‘Borders are galaxies: interpreting contestations over local administrative boundaries in South Sudan’, Africa 86 (3): 504–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crisp, J. (2000) ‘Africa's refugees: patterns, problems and policy challenges’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies 18 (2): 157–78.Google Scholar
Davis, D. K. (2000) ‘Environmentalism as social control? An exploration of the transformation of pastoral nomadic societies in French colonial North Africa’, Arab World Geographer 3 (3): 182–98.Google Scholar
de Bruijn, M. and van Dijk, H. (1993) ‘State formation and the decline of pastoralism: the Fulani in Central Mali’ in Markakis, J. (ed.), Conflict and the Decline of Pastoralism in the Horn of Africa. London: Macmillan Press.Google Scholar
de Haan, L., van Driel, A. and Kruihof, A. (1990) ‘From symbiosis to polarization? Peasants and pastoralists in northern Benin’, Indian Geographical Journal 65 (1): 5165.Google Scholar
de Haan, L. J., Quarles van Ufford, P. and Zaal, F. (1999) ‘Cross-border cattle marketing in sub-Saharan Africa since 1990: geographical patterns and government induced change’ in van der Laan, H. L., Dijkstra, T. and van Tilburg, A. (eds), Agricultural Marketing in Tropical Africa: contributions from the Netherlands. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Dedering, T. (2006) ‘War and mobility in the borderlands of South Western Africa in the early twentieth century’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 39 (2): 275–94.Google Scholar
Diop, A. T., Cesaro, J. D., Touré, A., Ickowicz, A. and Toutain, B. (2012) ‘Évolution des transhumances’ in Touré, I., Ickowicz, A., Wane, A., Garba, I. and Gerber, P. (eds), Atlas des évolutions des systèmes pastoraux au Sahel 1970–2012. SIPSA report to FAO. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Google Scholar
Doevenspeck, M. (2011) ‘Constructing the border from below: narratives from the Congolese–Rwandan state boundary’, Political Geography 30 (3): 129–42.Google Scholar
Doutressoulle, G. (1924) L’Élevage au Niger. Paris: Mortain.Google Scholar
Doutressoulle, G. (1947) L’Élevage en Afrique Occidentale Français. Paris: Éditions Larose.Google Scholar
du Picq, A. (1931) ‘Une population africaine: les Dyerma’, Bulletin du Comité d’Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l'Afrique Occidentale Française 14: 461704.Google Scholar
Dupire, M. (1972) Les facteurs humains de l’économie pastorale. Niamey, Niger: Centre Nigérien de Recherches en Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar
Fernandez-Gimenez, M. E. and LeFebre, S. (2006) ‘Mobility in pastoral systems: dynamic flux or downward trend?’, International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 13 (5): 341–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flahaux, M.-L. and de Haas, H. (2016) ‘African migration: trends, patterns, drivers’, Comparative Migration Studies 4 (1): 125.Google Scholar
Fourage, G. (1986) ‘Le frontière meridionale du Niger de la ligne Say–Baroua à la frontière actuelle (1890–1911)’. PhD thesis, University of Toulouse.Google Scholar
Fugelstad, F. (1983) A History of Niger, 1850–1960. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gado, B. (1980) Le Zarmatarey: contribution à l'histoire des populations d'entre Niger et Dallol Mawri. Niamey, Niger: Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar
Gallais, J. (1967) Le Delta intérieur du Niger. Dakar, Senegal: IFAN.Google Scholar
Gallais, J. (1975) Paysans et pasteurs du Gourma: la condition sahélienne. Paris: CNRS.Google Scholar
Gamory-Dubourdeau, C. (1924) ‘Étude sur la création de cantons de sédentarisation dans le cercle de Zinder et particulièrement dans la subdivision central’, Bulletin du Comité d’Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l'Afrique Occidentale Française 1924: 239–58.Google Scholar
Ganier, G. (1962) ‘Les rivalités anglaises et franco-allemandes de 1894 à 1898. Dernière phase de la course au Niger. La mission Ganier dans le Haut-Dahomey, 1897–1898’, Revue Française d'Histoire d'Outre Mer 49: 181261.Google Scholar
Habou, A. and Danguioua, A. (1991) Transfert du capital-bétail au Niger (des pasteurs aux autres catégories socio-professionelles). Niamey, Niger: Secretariat Permanent du Comité National du Code Rural.Google Scholar
Hama, B. (1967) L'Histoire traditionnelle d'un peuple: les Zarma-Songhay. Paris: Présence Africaine.Google Scholar
Hama, B. (1968) Contribution à la connaissance de l'histoire des peul. Paris: Présence Africaine.Google Scholar
Heasley, L. and Delehanty, J. (1995) ‘The politics of manure: resource tenure and the agropastoral economy in southwestern Niger’, Society and Natural Resources 9 (1): 3146.Google Scholar
Homewood, K. M. and Rogers, W. A. (1991) Maasailand Ecology: pastoralist development and wildlife conservation in Ngorongoro, Tanzania. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hourst, E. A. L. (1898) La Mission Hourst. Paris: Librarie Plon.Google Scholar
Institute de Recherche en Sciences Humaines (1977) Étude de Say: rapport final. Niamey, Niger: Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale and Ministère du Plan.Google Scholar
Karimou, M. (1977) Les Mawri Zarmaphones. Niamey, Niger: Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar
Kervan, C. (1992) Customary Commerce: a historical reassessment of pastoral livestock marketing in Africa. London: Overseas Development Institute.Google Scholar
Kimba, I. (1981) Guerres et sociétés: les population du ‘Niger’ occidental au XIXème siècle et leurs réactions face à la colonisation (1896–1906). Niamey, Niger: Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar
Kintz, D. (1985) ‘Archetypes politiques peuls’, Journal de la Société des Africanistes 55 (1): 93104.Google Scholar
Laya, D. (1991) ‘Migrations et intégration politique dans le Gourma oriental au XIX siècle: example des Folmongaani’, Journal de la Société des Africanistes 61 (2): 6590.Google Scholar
Lem, F. H. (1943) ‘Un centre d'islamisation au Moyen-Niger: Say’, La Terre d'Islam 1943: 5178.Google Scholar
Lenfant, E. A. (1903) Le Niger. Voie ouverte à notre empire africain. Paris: Librairie Hachette.Google Scholar
Loyance, A. (1947) ‘Notes sur les peuls et gourmantché de la région de Say’. Unpublished manuscript. Say, Niger.Google Scholar
Malfroy, M. F. (1923) ‘Projet de lutte contre les epizooties de peste bovine en Afrique Occidentale Française’, Bulletin du Comité d’Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l'Afrique Occidentale Française 1923: 220–9.Google Scholar
Mechlinski, T. (2010) ‘Towards an approach to borders and mobility in Africa’, Journal of Borderlands Studies 25 (2): 94106.Google Scholar
Miles, W. F. S. (1994) Hausaland Divided: colonialism and independence in Nigeria and Niger. Ithaca NY and London: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Mitchell, M. (2012) ‘Migration, citizenship and autochthony: strategies and challenges for state-building in Côte d'Ivoire’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies 30 (2): 267–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moatti, M. (1984) ‘Un exemple de colonisation dans la boucle du Niger: le poste de Say (1897–1899)’. PhD thesis, University of Paris I.Google Scholar
Moritz, M., Scholte, P., Hamilton, I. M. and Kari, S. (2013) ‘Open access, open systems: pastoral management of common-pool resources in the Chad Basin’, Human Ecology 41 (3): 351–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newbury, C. W. (1959) ‘The development of French policy on the lower and upper Niger, 1880–98’, Journal of Modern History 31 (1): 1626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niamir-Fuller, M. (ed.) (1999) Managing Mobility in African Rangelands. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.Google Scholar
Noyes, J. K. (2000) ‘Nomadic fantasies: producing landscapes of mobility in German Southwest Africa’, Ecumene 7 (1): 4766.Google Scholar
Obichere, B. I. (1971) West African States and European Expansion: the Dahomey–Niger hinterland. New Haven CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Olivier de Sardan, J.-P. (1984) Les sociétés songhay-zarma (Niger-Mali): chefs, guerriers, esclaves, paysans. Paris: Éditions Karthala.Google Scholar
Painter, T. M. (1988) ‘From warriors to migrants: critical perspectives on early migrations among the Zarma of Niger’, Africa 58 (1): 87100.Google Scholar
Painter, T. (1994) ‘Making migrants: Zarma peasants in Niger, 1900–1920’ in Cordell, D. D. and Gregory, J. W. (eds), African Population and Capitalism. Madison WI: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Quarles van Ufford, P. (1999) Trade and Traders: the making of the cattle market in Benin. PhD thesis, University of Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Quarles van Ufford, P. and Zaal, F. (2004) ‘The transfer of trust: ethnicities as economic institutions in the livestock trade in West and East Africa’, Africa 74 (2): 121–45.Google Scholar
Raeymaekers, T. (2009) ‘The silent encroachment of the frontier: a politics of transborder trade in the Semliki Valley (Congo–Uganda)’, Political Geography 28 (1): 5565.Google Scholar
Rossi, B. (2015) ‘Kinetocracy: the government of mobility at desert's edge’ in Vigneswaran, D. and Quirk, J. (eds), Mobility Makes States: migration and power in Africa. Philadelphia PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Roubaud, E. (1913) ‘Les mouches tsétsés en Afrique Occidentale Française’, Annales de Géographie 22: 427–50.Google Scholar
Rouher, L. and Styblin, P. (1993) ‘Le système agraire d'une pétite région de l'Arrondissement de Say (Niger)’. Thesis, Institut National Agronomique Paris-Grignon.Google Scholar
Santoir, C. (1979) L'espace pastoral dans la région du Fleuve Sénégal. Dakar: ORSTOM.Google Scholar
Sayre, N. F., McAllister, R. R. J., Bestelmeyer, B., Moritz, M. and Turner, M. D. (2013) ‘Earth stewardship of rangelands: coping with ecological, economic, and political marginality’, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 11 (7): 348–54.Google Scholar
Schmitz, J. (1986) ‘L’État géomètre: les leydi des Peul du Fuuta Tooro (Sénégal) et du Maasina (Mali)’, Cahiers d’Études Africaines 26 (103): 349–94.Google Scholar
Scott, J. C. (1998) Seeing Like a State: how certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed. New Haven CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Stenning, D. J. (1960) ‘Transhumance, migratory drift, migration: patterns of pastoral Fulani nomadism’ in Ottenberg, S. and Ottenberg, P. (eds), Cultures and Societies of Africa. New York NY: Random House.Google Scholar
Streicker, A. J. (1980) ‘On being Zarma: scarcity and stress in the Nigerien Sahel’. PhD thesis, Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Taithe, B. (2009) The Killer Trail: a colonial scandal in the heart of Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Thom, D. J. (1971) ‘The Niger–Nigeria borderlands: a politico-geographical analysis of boundary influence upon the Hausa’. PhD thesis, Michigan State University.Google Scholar
Tonah, S. (2000) ‘State policies, local prejudices and cattle rustling along the Ghana–Burkina Faso border’, Africa 70 (4): 551–67.Google Scholar
Tonah, S. (2003) ‘Integration or exclusion of Fulbe pastoralists in West Africa: a comparative analysis of interethnic relations, state and local policies in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire’, Journal of Modern African Studies 41 (1): 91114.Google Scholar
Turner, M. D. (1999) ‘No space for participation: pastoralist narratives and the etiology of park–herder conflict in southwestern Niger’, Land Degradation and Development 10 (4): 343–61.Google Scholar
Turner, M. D., McPeak, J. and Ayantunde, A. A. (2014) ‘The role of livestock mobility in the livelihood strategies of rural peoples in semi-arid West Africa’, Human Ecology 42 (2): 231–47.Google Scholar
Turner, M. D., McPeak, J. G., Gillin, K., Kitchell, E. and Kimambo, N. (2016) ‘Reconciling flexibility and tenure security for pastoral resources: the geography of transhumance networks in eastern Senegal’, Human Ecology 44 (2): 199215.Google Scholar
Urvoy, Y. (1929) ‘La Mékrou et le double-v’, Bulletin du Comité de l'Afrique Française 39: 135–40.Google Scholar
Vaughan, C. (2013) ‘Violence and regulation in the Darfur–Chad borderland c.1909–56: policing a colonial boundary’, Journal of African History 54 (2): 177–98.Google Scholar
Waller, R. (2012) ‘Pastoral production in colonial Kenya: lessons from the past?’, African Studies Review 55 (2): 127.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. (1984) ‘Resource management in a stratified Fulani community’. PhD thesis, Howard University.Google Scholar