Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T05:59:56.366Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

In-Migrants and Exclusion in East African Rangelands: Access, Tenure and Conflict

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 March 2011

Katherine Homewood ,
Ernestina Coast  and
Michael Thompson
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

East African rangelands have a long history of population mobility linked to competition over key resources, negotiated access, and outright conflict. Both in the literature and in local discourse, in‐migration is presented as leading to increased competition, driving poverty and social exclusion on the one hand, and conflict and violence on the other. Current analyses in developing countries identify economic differences, ethnic fault lines, ecological stresses and a breakdown in state provision of human and constitutional rights as factors in driving conflict. The present paper explores this interaction of in‐migration and conflict with respect to Kenyan and Tanzanian pastoralist areas and populations. Using quantitative and qualitative methods, patterns of resource access and control in Kenya and Tanzania Maasailand are explored in terms of the ways land and livestock are associated with migration status, ethnicity and wealth or political class. Contrasts and similarities between the two national contexts are used to develop a better understanding of the ways these factors operate under different systems of tenure and access. The conclusion briefly considers implications of these patterns, their potential for exacerbating poverty, and policies for minimising social exclusion and conflict in East African rangelands.

Rèsumè

Les prairies d'Afrique orientale connaissent depuis longtemps une mobilité des populations, liée aux problèmes de concurrence pour les ressources clés, d'accès négocié et de conflits pures et simples. Dans la littérature comme dans le discours local, l'immigration interne est présentée comme cause de concurrence accrue, motrice de pauvreté et d'exclusion sociale d'une part, et de conflit et de violence d'autre part. Des analyses menées actuellement dans les pays en développement identifient comme facteurs moteurs de conflit des écarts économiques, des failles ethniques, des tensions écologiques et une détérioration des droits humains et constitutionnels. Cet article examine l'interaction entre immigration interne et conflit au sein des régions et populations pastorales du Kenya et de la Tanzanie. Il utilise des méthodes quantitatives et qualitatives pour étudier les modéles d'accés et de contrôle des ressources dans le pays masï du Kenya et de la Tanzanie en termes d'association des terres et du bétail au statut d'immigration, à l'ethnicité et à la catégorie de richesse ou politique. Les contrastes et similarités entre les deux contextes nationaux servent à mieux comprendre le mode de fonctionnement de ces facteurs dans des régimes fonciers et systèmes d'accès différents. La conclusion examine brièvement les implications de ces modèles, leur capacité à exacerber la pauvreté et les politiques de minimisation de l'exclusion sociale et des conflits dans les prairies d'Afrique orientale.

Type
Research Article
Information
Africa , Volume 74 , Issue 4 , November 2004 , pp. 567 - 610
Copyright
Copyright © International African Institute 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Africa Law Review. 1998. ‘Internal Displacement’, Africa Law Review [formerly Nairobi Law Monthly] 71.Google Scholar
Africa Watch. 1990. ‘Tanzania: executive order denies land rights. Barabaig suffer beatings, arson and criminal charges’, News from Africa Watch 12 March 1990, 1–8.Google Scholar
Allen, T.(ed.). 1996. In Search of Cool Ground: war, flight and homecoming in northeast Africa. Geneva: UNRISD (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development); London: James Currey; Trenton NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Anarfi, P. 1998. ‘Anthropological perspectives on migration in Africa’, in Basu, A M. and Aaby, P., The Methods and Uses of Anthropological Demography. Oxford: Clarendon; New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, D. 2002. Eroding the Commons: the politics of ecology in Baringo, Kenya 1890s–1963. Oxford: James Currey; Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers (EAEP); Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
A rhem, K. 1985. Pastoral Man in the Garden of Eden: the Maasai of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Uppsala: University of Uppsala (Department of Cultural Anthropology) and the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.Google Scholar
Behnke, R. 1993. Natural Resource Management in Tropical Africa. Paper presented a the workshop ‘Listening to the People: social aspects of dryland management’. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, 14–18 December.Google Scholar
Bishop, E. 2003. Maasai Schooling Strategies: a case-study of Engare Naibor, Tanzania. M.Sc. thesis. Anthropology Department, University College, London.Google Scholar
Brockington, D. 1999. ‘Conservation displacement and livelihoods: the effects of eviction on pastoralists moved from the Mkomazi Game reserve, Tanzania’, Nomadic Peoples 3: 74–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockington, D. 2002. Fortress Conservation: the preservation of the Mkomazi Game Reserve, Tanzania. Oxford: James Currey, in association with the International African Institute; Bloomington: Indiana University PressGoogle Scholar
Brockington, D., and Homewood, K. 1999. ‘Pastoralism around Mkomazi Game Reserve: the interaction of conservation and development’, in Coe, M., McWilliam, N.,Stone, G. and Packer, M. (eds), Mkomazi: the ecology, biodiversity and conservation of a Tanzanian savanna. London: Royal Geographical Society with the Institute of British Geographers.Google Scholar
Bryceson, D. F. 1999. ‘African rural labour, income diversification and livelihood approaches: a long term development perspective’, Review of African Political Economy 26 (80): 171–189.Google Scholar
Bryceson, D. F., and Jamal, V. 1997. Farewell to Farms: de-agrarianisation and employment in Africa. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Cameron, G. 2001. ‘Taking stock of pastoralist NGOs in Tanzania’, Review of African Political Economy (27) 87: 55–72.Google Scholar
Campbell, D. 1993. ‘Land as ours, land as mine: economic, political and ecological marginalisation in Kajiado district, Kenya’, in Spear, T. and Waller, R. (eds), Being Maasai: ethnicity and identity in East Africa. London: James Currey; Dar es Salaam: Mkuki wa Nyota; Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers (EAEP); Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Carney, D., and Farington, J. 1998. Natural Resource Management and Institutional Change. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Carr-Hill, R. 2002. Education for Nomads in Eastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda. Study for the African Development Bank.Google Scholar
Chatty, D., and Colchester, M. (eds). 2002. Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples: displacement, forced settlement, and sustainable development. New York and Oxford: Berghahn.Google Scholar
Christiansson, C, and Tobisson, E. 1989. ‘Environmental degradation as a consequence of socio-political conflict in Eastern Mara Region, Tanzania’, in Hjort af Orna¨s, A. and Mohamed Salih, M. A., Ecology and Politics: environmental stress and security in Africa. Stockholm: Scandinavian Instituteof African Studies.Google Scholar
Coast, E. 1998. The single round demographic survey, Technical Report No. 1, EU contract IC18-CT96-0070. London: University College.Google Scholar
Coast, E. 2000. Maasai Demography. Ph.D. thesis. Anthropology Department, University College, London.Google Scholar
Coast, E. 2002. ‘Maasai socio-economic conditions: cross-border comparison’, Human Ecology 30 (1): 79–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daily Nation [Nairobi]. 10 April 2000. Obituary notices.Google Scholar
Dawson, M. H. 1979. ‘Smallpox in Kenya, 1880–1920’, Social Science and Medicine 13: 245–250.Google Scholar
Dean, R. 2000. ‘Cattle clashes in Tanzania’. 11 December 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1066244.stm.Google Scholar
Dietz, T. 1996. Entitlements to Natural Resources: contours of political environmental geography. Inaugural Lecture, University of Amsterdam. Utrecht: International Books.Google Scholar
Ellis, F. 2000. Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in Developing Countries. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fleischer, M. 1999. ‘Cattle raiding and household demography among the Kuria of Tanzania’, Africa 69 (2): 238–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fratkin, E. 2001. ‘East African pastoralism in transition: Maasai, Boran, and Rendille Cases’, African Studies Review 44 (3), 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukui, K., and Markakis, J. 1994. Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa. London: James Currey; Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Galaty, J. G. 1980. ‘The Maasai Group Ranch’, in Salzman, P. (ed.), When Nomads Settle: processes of sedentarization as adaptation and response. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Galaty, J. G. 1981. ‘Land and livestock amongst Kenyan Maasai’, Journal of Asian and African Studies XVI (1–2).Google Scholar
Galaty, J. G. 1993. ‘The rhetoric of rights: construing Maasai land claims’, in Justice and Paradox in the Conflicts and Claims of Indigenous Peoples. Washington DC: American Anthropological Association.Google Scholar
Galaty, J. G. 1994. ‘Rangeland tenure and pastoralism in Africa’, in Fratkin, E., Galvin, K., and Roth, E. A. (eds), African Pastoralist Systems: an integrated approach. Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Galaty, J. G. 1999. ‘Grounding pastoralists: law, politics and dispossession in East Africa’, Nomadic Peoples 3 (2): 56–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galaty, J. G., and Bonte, P.. 1992. Herders, Warriors, and Traders: pastoralism in Africa. Boulder CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Hitchcock, R. 1990. ‘Water, land and livestock: evolution of tenure and administration patterns in the grazing areas of Botswana,’ in J. G. Galaty and D. L. Johnson (eds), The World of Pastoralism: herding systems in comparative perspective. New York: Guilford Press; London: Belhaven Press.Google Scholar
Hitchcock, R. 1996. Kalahari Communities: Bushmen and the politics of the environment in Southern Africa. IGWIA Document no. 79. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs.Google Scholar
Hodgson, D. L. 1999. ‘‘‘Once intrepid warriors’’: modernity and the productio of Maasai masculinities’, Ethnology 38: 121–150.Google Scholar
Hodgson, D. L. 2000. ‘Taking stock: state control, ethnic identity and pastoralist development in Tanganyika, 1948–1958’, Journal of African History 41:55–78.Google Scholar
Hodgson, D. L. 2001. Once intrepid warriors: gender, ethnicity, and the cultural politics of Maasai development. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Hogg, R.(ed.). 1997. Pastoralists, Ethnicity and the State in Ethiopia. London: HAAN, in association with the Institute for African Alternatives.Google Scholar
Homewood, K. 1995. ‘Development, demarcation and ecological outcomes in Maasailand’, Africa 65 (3): 331–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Homewood, K. 2000. Policy, cultivation and conservation in East African Rangelands. Final Research Report (R6828). DFID-ESCOR (Department for International Development-Economic and Social Committee on Overseas Research).Google Scholar
Homewood, K., Lambin, E. F., Coast, E., Kariuki, A., Kikula, I., Kivelia, J., Said, M., Serneels, S., and Thompson, M. 2001. ‘Long-term changes in Serengeti-Mara wildebeest and land cover: pastoralism, population, or policies?’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98 (22): 12544‐12549.Google Scholar
Homewood, K. M., and Rodgers, W. A. 1991. Maasailand Ecology: pastoralist development and wildlife conservation in Ngorongoro, Tanzania. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hussein, K. 1998. Conflict between Farmers and Herders in the Semi-arid Sahel and East Africa: a review. Pastoral Land Tenure series, no 10. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, S. E. 1996. Nuer Dilemmas: coping with money, war, and the state. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Igoe, J., and Brockington, D. 1999. Pastoral Land Tenure and Community Conservation: a case study from north-east Tanzania. Pastoral Land Tenure series, no 11. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.Google Scholar
IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development). 1992–1999. Pastoral Land Tenure series. London: International Institute for Environment and Development; www.iied.org/drylands/pubs.html>..>Google Scholar
Iliya, M., and Swindell, K. 1997. ‘Winners and losers: household fortunes in the urban peripheries of northern Nigeria’, in Bryceson, D. F. and Jamal, V. (eds), Farewell to Farms: de-agrarianisation and employment in Africa. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources). 1987. IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas. Gland: IUCN.Google Scholar
James, W. 1996. ‘Uduk resettlement’, in Allen, T.(ed.), In Search of Cool Ground: war, flight and homecoming in northeast Africa. Geneva: UNRISD (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development); London: James Currey: Trenton NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Kaisoe, M., and Ole Seki, W.. 2002. ‘The Conflict between Conventional Conservation Strategies and Indigenous Conservation Systems: the case study of Ngorongoro Conservation Area’. Paper presented at the CAURWA/FPP (Communaute´ des autochtones rwandais/Forest Peoples Project) conference, ‘Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas in Africa: from principles to practice’, in Kigali, Rwanda, 4–7 September 2001. http://forestpeoples.gn.apc.org/Briefings/Africa/fpproj_tanzania_summ_ eng.htm.Google Scholar
Kiondo, A. 2002. Civil Society, Democratization and Conflict Management: recent developments from Tanzania. Paper presented at the seminar ‘Democratization and Conflict Management in Eastern Africa’, University of Go¨teborg, 28 February-3 March 2002.Google Scholar
Klopp, J. 2001. ‘ ‘‘Ethnic clashes’’ and winning elections: the case of Kenya’s electoral despotism’, Canadian Journal of African Studies 35 (3): 473–515.Google Scholar
Klopp, J. 2002. ‘Can moral ethnicity trump political tribalism? The struggle for land and nation in Kenya’, African Studies 61 (2): 269–294.Google Scholar
Klugman, J., Neyapti, B., and Stewart, F. 1999. Conflict and Growth in Africa. Volume 2: Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Paris: Development Centre of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurimoto, E. and Simonse, S. (eds). 1998. Conflict, Age and Power in North East Africa: age systems in transition. Oxford: James Currey; Nairobi: EAEP (East African Educational Publishers): Kampala: Fountain; Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Lamprey, R., and Waller., R. 1990. ‘The Loita-Mara Region in historical times: patterns of subsistence, settlement and ecological change’, in Robertshaw, P. (ed.), Early Pastoralists of South-Western Kenya. Nairobi: British Institute in East Africa.Google Scholar
Lane, C. 1996a. ‘Poverty, politics and pastoralists in East Africa’, Anthropology in Action 33: 11–13.Google Scholar
Lane, C. 1996b. Pastures Lost: Barabaig economy, resource tenure, and the alienation of their land in Tanzania. Nairobi: Initiatives Publishers.Google Scholar
Lane, C. 1996c. Ngorongoro Voices: indigenous Maasai of the Ngorongoro give their views on the proposed management plan. n.p.: Forest Trees and People Programme.Google Scholar
Lane, C. R.(ed.). 1998. Custodians of the Commons: pastoral land tenure in East and West Africa. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Leader-Williams, N. 2000. ‘The effects of a century of policy and legal change upon wildlife conservation and utilisation in Tanzania’, in Prins, H. H. T.Grootenhuis, J. G. and Dolan, T. T. (eds), Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Lissu, T. 2000. ‘Policy and legal issues on wildlife management in Tanzania’s pastoral lands: the case study of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area’, Law, Social Justice and Global Development.http://elj.warwick.ac.uk/global/issue/2000–1/lissu.htmlGoogle Scholar
McAuslan, P. 2000. ‘Only the name of the country changes: the diaspora of ‘‘European’’ land law in Commonwealth Africa’, in Toulmin, C. and Quan, J. (eds), Evolving Land Rights, Policy, and Tenure in Africa. London: IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development).Google Scholar
Makacha, S., and Ole Sayalel, P.. 1987. The Problem of Agriculture at Ngorongoro. NCAA internal document. Mimeo.Google Scholar
Manners, R. 1967. ‘The Kipsigis’, in Steward, J. H. (ed.), Contemporary Change in Traditional Societies. Vol. 1. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Markakis, J. 1999. ‘Pastoralists and politicians in Kenya’, Review of African Political Economy 80: 293–296.Google Scholar
Markakis, J.(ed.). 1993. Conflict and the Decline of Pastoralism in the Horn of Africa. Basingstoke: Macmillan, in association with the Institute of Social Studies.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mirzeler, M., and Young, C.. 2000. ‘Pastoral politics in the northeast periphery of Uganda: AK-47 as change agent’, Journal of Modern African Studies 38 (3): 407–429.Google Scholar
MNRT (Ministry of National Resources and Tourism, Tanzania). 1996. Report of the Ad-hoc Ministerial Commission: a conservation and development strategy for the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Dares Salaam: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism.Google Scholar
MNRT 1997. The Mkomazi/Umba Game Reserves Management Plan (Draft). Wildlife Division. Dar es Salaam: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism.Google Scholar
Moris, J. 1981. ‘A case in rural development: the Maasai Range development project’, in Moris, J. (ed.), Managing Induced Rural Development. Bloomington: International Development Institute, Indiana University.Google Scholar
Munei, K. O., and Galaty, J. G. 1999. ‘Maasai land, law and dispossession’, Cultural Survival Quarterly 22 (4): 68–71.Google Scholar
NCAA (Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority). 1999. 1998 Aerial Boma Count, 1999 People and Livestock Census, and Human Population Trends between 1954 and 1999 in the NCAA. Ngorongoro: NCAA.Google Scholar
Ndagala, D. 1982. ‘‘‘Operation Imparnati’’: the sedentarization of the pastoral Maasai in Tanzania’, Nomadic Peoples 10: 28–39.Google Scholar
Ndagala, D. 1990a. ‘Pastoral territoriality and land degradation in Tanzania’, in Palsson, G. (ed.), From Water to World-making: African models and arid lands. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.Google Scholar
Ndagala, D. 1990b. ‘Pastoralists and the state in Tanzania’, Nomadic Peoples 25–27: 51–64.Google Scholar
Ndagala, D. 1992a. Territory, pastoralists and livestock: resource control among the Kisongo Maasai. Uppsala Studies in Cultural Anthropology, no. 18. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Uppsaliensis.Google Scholar
Ndagala, D. 1992b. ‘Production diversification and community development in African pastoral areas’, in Hjort af Orna¨s, A. (ed.), Security in African Drylands: research, development and policy. Uppsala: Research Project on Environment and Security, Departments of Human and Physical Geography, Uppsala University.Google Scholar
Ndagala, D. 1994. ‘Pastoral territory and policy debates in Tanzania.’ Nomadic Peoples 34–35: 23–36.Google Scholar
Niamir-Fuller, M.(ed.). 1999. Managing Mobility in African Rangelands: the legitimization of transhumance. London: Intermediate Technology Publications; Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okoth-Ogendo, H. W. O. 2000. ‘Legislative approaches to customary tenure and tenure reform in East Africa’, in Toulmin, C. and Quan, J. (eds), Evolving Land Rights, Policy, and Tenure in Africa. London: IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development).Google Scholar
Ole Kuney, R. 1994. ‘Pluralism and ethnic conflict in Tanzania’s aridlands: the case of the Maasai and the waArusha’, Nomadic Peoples 34–35: 95–107.Google ScholarPubMed
Otieno, C. 2002a. ‘Arrests after Tanzania clashes’. 11 January 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1755750.stm.Google Scholar
Otieno, C. 2002b. ‘Arrests after Tanzania clashes’. 15 January 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1762477.stm.Google Scholar
Palmer, R. 2000. ‘Land policy in Africa: lessons from recent policy and implementation processes’, in Toulmin, C. and Quan, J. (eds), Evolving Land Rights, Policy, and Tenure in Africa. London: IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development).Google Scholar
Peluso, N. L. 1993. ‘Coercing conservation? The politics of state resource control’, Global Environmental Change 3 (2): 199–217.Google Scholar
Perkin, S. 1997. ‘The Ngorongoro Conservation Area: values, history and land-use conflicts’, in Thompson, D. M. (ed.), Multiple Land-Use: the experience of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania. Gland: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources).Google Scholar
Platteau, J. P. 2000. ‘Does Africa need land reform?’ in C. Toulmin and J. Quan (eds), Evolving Land Rights, Policy, and Tenure in Africa. London: IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development).Google Scholar
Potkanski, T. 1994. Property Concepts, Herding Patterns and Management of Natural Resources among the Ngorongoro and Salei Maasai of Tanzania. Pastoral Land Tenure series, no 6. London: IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development).Google Scholar
Rutten, M. M. E. M. 1992. Selling Wealth to Buy Poverty: the process of the individualization of land ownership among the Maasai pastoralists of Kajiado District, Kenya 1890–1990. Saarbru¨cken: Verlag Breitenbach.Google Scholar
Scoones, I. 1995. ‘New directions in pastoralist development in Africa’, in Scoones, I. (ed.), Living with Uncertainty: new directions in pastoralist development in Africa. London: IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development), Intermediate Technology Publications.Google Scholar
Shivji, I. 1998. Not Yet Democracy: reforming land tenure in Tanzania. London and Dar es Salaam: IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development); Dar es Salaam: Hakiardhi, Faculty of Law, University of Dar es Salaam.Google Scholar
Shivji, I., and Kapinga., W. 1998. Maasai rights in Ngorongoro, Tanzania. London and Dar es Salaam: IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development); Dar es Salaam: Hakiardhi, Faculty of Law, University of Dar es Salaam.Google Scholar
Southgate, C, and Hulme, D.. 1996. ‘Environmental management in Kenya’s arid and semi-arid lands: an overview’. Rural Resources/Rural Livelihoods Working Papers, no. 2. Institute for Development Policy and Management, University of Manchester. http://www.sed.manchester.ac.uk/idpm/publications/wp/rr/rr_wp02.htm.Google Scholar
Southgate, C, 2000. ‘Uncommon property: the scramble for wetland in southern Kenya’, in Woodhouse, P., Bernstein, H., and Hulme, D. (eds), African Enclosures? The social dynamics of wetlands in drylands. Oxford: James Currey; Trenton NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Spear, T. 1997. Mountain Farmers: moral economies of land and agricultural development in Arusha and Meru. Oxford: James Currey; Dar es Salaam: Mkuki wa Nyota; Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Spear, T., and Waller, R. (eds). 1993. BeingMaasai: ethnicity andidentity in EastAfrica. London: James Currey; Dar es Salaam: Mkuki wa Nyota; Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers (EAEP); Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Spencer, P. 1988. The Maasai of Matapato: a study of rituals of rebellion. Manchester: Manchester University Press, for the International African Institute.Google Scholar
Stewart, F. 2002. ‘Root causes of violent conflict in developing countries’, British Medical Journal 324: 342–345; http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/ content/full/324/7333/342#art.Google Scholar
Talle, A. 1988. Women at a Loss: changes in Maasai pastoralism and their effects on gender relations. Stockholm: Department of Social Anthropology, University of Stockholm.Google Scholar
Tanzania, United Republic of. 1994a. Report of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Land Matters. Vol. I: Land Policy and Land Tenure Structure. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.Google Scholar
Tanzania, United Republic of.1994b. Report of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Land Matters. Vol. II: Selected Land Disputes and Recommendations. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.Google Scholar
Thompson, D. M. 2002. Livestock, Cultivation and Tourism: livelihood choices and conservation in Maasai Mara buffer zones. Ph.D. thesis. Anthropology Department, University College, London.Google Scholar
Thompson, D. M.(ed.). 1997. Multiple Land-Use: the experience of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania. Gland: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources).Google Scholar
Thompson, M., and Homewood, K. 2002. ‘Elites, entrepreneurs and exclusion in Maasailand’, Human Ecology 30 (1): 107–138.Google Scholar
Toulmin, C, and Quan, J. (eds). 2000. Evolving Land Rights, Policy, and Tenure in Africa. London: IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development).Google Scholar
Turton, D. 1996. ‘Migrants and refugees: a Mursi case study’, in Allen, T. (ed.), In Search of Cool Ground: war, flight and homecoming in northeast Africa. Geneva: UNRISD (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development); London: James Currey; Trenton NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Waller, R. 1976. ‘The Maasai and the British 1895–1905’, Journal of African History 17: 529–553.Google Scholar
Waller, R. 1979. ‘The Lords of East Africa: the Maasai in the mid-nineteenth century (c.1840–1880)’. Ph.D. thesis. University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Waller, R. 1985. ‘Ecology, migration and expansion in East Africa’, African Affairs 84: 347–370.Google Scholar
Waller, R. 1988. ‘Emutai: crisis and response in Maasailand 1883–1902’, in Johnson, D. and Anderson, D. (eds), The Ecology of Survival: case studies from northeast African history. London: Lester Crook Academic Publishing; Boulder CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, and Anderson, D. (eds),1990. ‘Tsetse fly in Western Narok, Kenya’, Journal of African History 31:81–101.Google Scholar
Johnson, and Anderson, D. (eds),1993. ‘Acceptees and aliens: Kikuyu settlement in Maasailand’, in Spear, T. and Waller, R. (eds), Being Maasai: ethnicity and identity in East Africa.Google Scholar