Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-06T09:47:31.571Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

From tidal swamp to inland valley: on the social organization of wet rice cultivation among the Diola of Senegal

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 December 2011

Extract

Students of West African rice agriculture (cf. Dresch 1949, Mohr 1969) often distinguish between the Upper Guinea coast, where wet rice has been grown for centuries in permanent swamp fields recovered from the mangrove, and a more extensive area further inland, where the predominant form has been dry or mountain rice grown by shifting agriculturalists (fig. 1). The Diola of Senegal (Pélissier 1966, Linares 1970), the Balanta of Guinea Bissau (Espírito Santo 1949), and the Baga of coastal Guinea (Paulme 1957), belong to the first category. They transplant rice in inundated fields that are desalinated, diked, ridged and irrigated. In contrast, the Mande-speaking peoples of Sierra Leone and Liberia are mostly ‘upland’ farmers. They broadcast rice on rain-fed fields that are rotated and fallowed.

Résumé

Des bas-fonds du littoral aux vallées de l'intérieur: l'organisation sociale de la riziculture inondée chez les Diolas du Sénégal

Voici une étude comparative sur l'organisation sociale liée à la riziculture en terrains inondés, entre trois villages Diolas, représentant chacun une région écologiquement différente, situés en Basse Casamance, au Sénégal. Bien que leur éloignement respectif ne dépasse pas 80 kms., ces villages diffèrent nettement sur le plan social et politique, celui du droit foncier et de la division par sexe du travail. L'importance relative de l'lslam et des idéologies qui insistent sur des rapports asymétriques de rang et de statut est plus prononcée parmi les Diola influencés par les Mandingues, que parmi les groupes Diolas, plus isolés, des zones cotiêres.

Les différences de rapports de production entre les riziculteurs Diolas des marécages du littoral et les groupes islamisés de l'intérieur se retrouvent aussi dans le contraste que l'on constate entre quelques groupes “paîens” et groupes de la côte guinéenne parlant Mandé. Les riziculteurs Diolas ainsi que leurs voisins de Guinée-Bissau et de Guinée (Conakry) se-distinguent par une forme de gouvernement acéphale et des structures sociales égalitaires. Bien que trés divers, ces groupes de langue Mandé, cultivant presque tous le riz de colline et pratiquant la jachère, sont organisés en lignages fondés sur l'ancêtre et hiérarchisés; ils conservent également une forme d'autorité “centralisée” représentée par le chef du village, du lignage ou de la famille, ce premier étant considéré comme le “propriétaire de la terre”. Les effectifs des families paysannes sont généralement augmentés grâce au recrutement d'autres membres qui se trouvent en situation de dépendance vis-à-vis du chef de la maisonnée et forment une main d'oeuvre “captive”. Il s'y ajoute l'appoint constitué par une autre main d'oeuvre disponible par l'entremise de groupements de travailleurs agricoles réunis en compagnies.

Par ailleurs chez les groupes Diolas “paîens”, chaque individus est “propriétaire” des terres et dispose de facto de l'usufruit et peut donner ou mettre en gage des champs de riz cultivés en permanence. Bien que les tâches agricoles soient la prérogative des couples ou familles domestiques, on fait aussi appel à des groupes d'entraide plus larges, en fonction des besoins et par le jeu multiple des liens cognatiques, d'affinité ou d'amitié.

Les distinctions entre les groupes égalitaires pratiquant une riziculture inondée “intensive”, permanente (c'est-à-dire les Diolas, les Balantes et les Bagas), et les riziculteurs de langue Mandé, plus “hiérarchisés” et pratiquant une culture “extensive” sur les hauteurs, résident davantage dans l'organisation culturelle qui régit l'ensemble des rapports sociaux et des modes de production que dans certains facteurs technologiques, démographiques, ou économiques.

Type
Rice and Yams in West Africa
Copyright
Copyright © International African Institute 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

d'Azevedo, W. L. 1962Common principles of variant kinship structures among the Gola of Western Liberia’. American Anthropologist 64 (3): 504520CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bledsoe, C. 1976Women's marital strategies among the Kpelle of Liberia.’ Journal of Anthropological Research 32 (4): 372389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bledsoe, C. 1980 Women and Marriage in Kpelle Society. Stanford: Stanford University PressGoogle Scholar
Carreira, A. 1961Organizacao social e ec6nomica dos povos da Guine Portuguesa’. Boletim Cultural da Guine Portuguesa 16 (64): 641736Google Scholar
Carreira, A. and Meireles, A. M. de 1960Quelques notes sur les mouvements migratoires des populations de la province portugaise da Guinee’. Bull, de l'IFAN, 22 (3-4): 379392Google Scholar
Currens, G. E. 1979 ‘Land, labor and capital in Loma agriculture', in V. Dorjahn, R. and Isaac, B. L. (eds.), 79102Google Scholar
Dalby, David 1965The Mel languages: a reclassification of Southern “West Atlantic”.’ African Language Studies 6: 117Google Scholar
Dey, J. n.d. ‘The socio-economic organization of farming in the Gambia and its relevance for agricultural development planning.’ Overseas Development Institute, Agricultural Administration Network Papers 7: 142Google Scholar
Donald, L. 1970 ‘Food production by the Yalunka household, Sierra Leone’, in McLoughlin, P. F. M. (ed.), African Food Production Systems. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 165191.Google Scholar
Dorjahn, V. R. 1977Temne household size and composition: rural changes over time and rural-urban differences.’ Ethnology 16 (2): 105127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dorjahn, V. R. and Isaac, B. L. (eds.) 1979 Essays in Economic Anthropology of Liberia and Sierra Leone. Philadelphia; Liberian Studies Association.Google Scholar
Dresch, J. 1949La riziculture en Afrique Occidentale.’ Annales de Geographic 312 (53): 295312CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espirito Santo, J. 1949Notas sobre a cultura do arroz entre os Balantas’. Boletim Cultural da GuinePortuguesa 4(14): 197232Google Scholar
Fernandes, Valentim 1506-1507 Description de la Cote Occidentale d'Afrique (Senegal au Cap de Monte, Archipels). See under Th. Monod 1951Google Scholar
Finnegan, R. H. 1965 Survey of the Limba Peoples of Northern Sierra Leone. London: H.M.S.O.Google Scholar
Gibbs, J. L. Jr (ed.) 1978 Peoples of Africa (abridged edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Goody, J. (ed.) 1958 The Development Cycle in Domestic Groups. Cambridge University Press for Department of Archaeology and Anthropology (Cambridge Papers in Social Anthropology, 1Google Scholar
Goody, J. 1971 Technology, Tradition and the State in Africa. London: Oxford University Press for the International African InstituteGoogle Scholar
Goody, J. 1976 Production and Reproduction. A Comparative Study of the Domestic Domain. Cambridge: Cambridge University PressGoogle Scholar
Grace, J. L. 1977 ‘Slavery and emancipation among the Mende in Sierra Leone, 1896-1928’, in Miers, S. and Kopytoff, I. (eds.), Slavery in Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 415431Google Scholar
Gray, R. F. 1963 The Sonjo of Tanganyika: an Anthropological Study of an Irrigation-based Society. London: Oxford University Press for the International African InstituteGoogle Scholar
Haswell, M. R. 1963 The Changing Pattern of Economic Activity in a Gambia Village. London: H.M.S.O.Google Scholar
Holsoe, S. E. 1979 ‘Economic activities in the Liberian area: the pre-European period to 1900’, in Dorjahn, V. R. and Isaac, B. L. (eds.) 6378Google Scholar
Isaac, B. L. 1980Female fertility and marital form among the Mende of rural Upper Bambara Chiefdom, Sierra Leone’. Ethnology 19 (3): 297313CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, M. 1977 The Kuranko. New York: St. Martin's PressGoogle Scholar
Kup, A. P. 1960An account of the tribal distribution of Sierra Leone’, Man 156: 116119CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lauer, J. J. 1969 Rice in the History of the Lower Gambia-Geba Area. University of Wisconsin, M. A. thesisGoogle Scholar
Leary, F. A. 1971 ‘The role of the Mandinka in the islamization of the Casamance, 1850-1911’, in Hodge, C. T. (ed.), Papers on the Manding. Bloomington: Indiana University Publications, African Series, 3: 227248Google Scholar
Linares, O. F. 1970 ‘Agriculture and Diola society’, in McLoughlin, P. (ed.), African Food Production Systems. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 194227.Google Scholar
Linares, O. F. 1980Social spatial and temporal relations: Diola villages in archaeological perspective.’ Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. In PressGoogle Scholar
Little, K. L. 1948The Mende farming household.’ The Sociological Review 40 (4): 3756CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, K. L. 1951The Mende rice farm and its cost’. Zaire 5 (3): 227273Google Scholar
Little, K. L. 1967 The Mende of Sierra Leone: a West African People in Transition. London: Routledge and Kegan PaulGoogle Scholar
MacCormack, C. P. 1977 ‘Wono: institutionalized dependency in Sherbro descent groups (Sierra Leone)’ in Miers, S. and Kopytoff, I. (eds.), Slavery in Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 181203Google Scholar
McCulloch, M. 1950 The Peoples of Sierra Leone Protectorate (Ethnological Survey of Africa, Western Africa, 2). London: International African Institute.Google Scholar
Mark, P. A. 1976 Economic and Religious Change among the Diola of Boulouf (Casamance), 1890-1940: Trade, Cash Cropping and Islam in Southwestern Senegal. Yale University, Ph.D. dissertationGoogle Scholar
Mohr, B. 1969 Die Reiskultur in Westafrika. Munich: Weltforum Verlag for IFO-Inst. für Wirtschaftsforschung (Afrika-Studien, 44)Google Scholar
Monod, Th., Mota, A. Teixeira da and Mauny, R. (eds.) 1951 Description de la Côte Occidentale d'Afrique… by Fernandes, V.. Bissau: Centro de Estudos da Guiné Portuguesa, no. 11Google Scholar
Moseley, K. P. 1979Land, labour and migration: the Safroko Limba case’, Africana Research Bulletin 8, (23).Google Scholar
Netting, R. McC. 1965Household organization and intensive agriculture: the Kofyar case’. Africa 35 (4), 422429CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Netting, R. McC. 1968 Hill Farmers of Nigeria: Cultural Ecology of the Kofyar of the Jos Plateau. Seattle: University of Washington PressGoogle Scholar
Netting, R. McCleveland, D. and Stier, F. n.d. ‘The conditions of agricultural intensification in the West African savannah’. AID, Contract REDSO/WA 78142; A Sahelian Social Development PaperGoogle Scholar
Njoku, A. O. 1979 ‘The economics of Mende upland rice farming’, in Dorjahn, V. R. and Isaac, B. L. (eds.) 6378Google Scholar
Paulme, Denise 1957Des riziculteurs africains: les Baga (Guinee frangaise)’. Les Cahiers d'Outre-Mer 10: 257278CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paulme, Denise 1970 Les gens du riz. Les Kissi de Haute-Guinee. Paris: Librairie PlonGoogle Scholar
Pelissier, P. 1966 Les paysans du Senegal. Les civilisations agraires du Cayor a la Casamance. Saint-Yrieix: Impr. FabregueGoogle Scholar
Porteres, R. 1962Berceaus agricoles primaires sur le continent africain’. Journal of African History 3 (2): 195210CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riddell, J. C. 1979 ‘The Gbannah Ma (Mano) in two economies: dynamics of finite-labor economies’, in Dorjahn, V. R and Isaac, B. L. (eds.), 121140Google Scholar
Sapir, J. D. 1965 A Grammar of Diola-Fogny: a Language Spoken in the Basse-Casamance Region of Senegal. London: Cambridge University PressGoogle Scholar
Sapir, J. D. 1970Kujaama: symbolic separation among the Diola-Fogny.’ American Anthroplogist 72(6): 13301348CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sapir, J. D. 1971West Atlantic: an inventory of the languages, their noun class, systems and consonant alternation’, in Sebeok, T.A. (ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics 7:45112Google Scholar
Schloss, M. R. 1979 The Hatchet's Blood: Spirits and Society among the Ehing of Senegal. University of Virginia, Ph. D. dissertationGoogle Scholar
Service de la Statistique et de la Documentation, Republique du Sénégal, 1964, 1972 ‘Répertoire des Villages’. DakarGoogle Scholar
Smith, M. G. 1956On segmentary lineage systems’. JRAI 86(2): 3980Google Scholar
Teixeira da Mota, A. 1950A agriculture de Brames e Balantas vista atraves da fotografia aerea.’ Boletim Cultural da Guine Portuguesa 5 (17): 131172Google Scholar
Teixeira da Mota, A. 1951Notas sobre o povoamentoe agricultural indigena na Guine Portguesa.’ Boletim Cultural de Guine Portuguesa 23: 657680.Google Scholar
Thomas, L. V. 1959 Les Diola. Dakar: Mem. IFAN 55, vols. 12.Google Scholar
Van Santeen, C. E. 1975 ‘Some notes on smallholder rice production in Liberia', in Socio-Economic Aspects of Rice Cultivation in West Africa.Google Scholar
Weil, P. M. 1973Wet rice, women, and adaption in the Gambia’. RuralAfricana 19: 2028Google Scholar
Yanagisako, S. J. 1979Family and household: the analysis of domestic groups.’ Annual Review of Anthropology 8: 161205CrossRefGoogle Scholar