Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T22:17:17.421Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Use of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy in Materials Science

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 March 2019

James Castle
James Castle*
Affiliation:
University of Surrey Guildford, Surrey GU2 5XH, England
Get access

Abstract

This review will attempt to show how XPS now makes an important contribution to Materials Science and to highlight the developments which have brought it to this position. XPS is now a mature technique for surface analysis but it has in addition a major role as a specialised tool, being essential to studies in which derivitization methods are used to tag surface groups.

The requirements of users in this field have led to the development of X-ray sources which were not envisaged in the early development of the spectroscopy. The usual sources of aluminium Kα and magnesium Kα have limitations for those elements beyond magnesium in the periodic table which would have the Is lino as the principal peak - aluminium, silicon, oulphur and phosphorus for example. Higher energy sources such as silicon Kα or zirconium and silver Lα have made it possible to utilise the Is lines up to chlorine and have the additional advantage that a strong and well resolved series of Auger lines also becomes available. The higher energy radiations are thus particularly suited to the determination of relaxation energies in materials by use of relative shifts between the photo- and Auger lines of the spectrum. Such has been the utility of such relaxation energies that use is often made of Auger lines derived from the Bremmstrahlung component of the normal x-ray sources to make a similar measurement. This measurement is used in the study of insulating ceramics in which electrostatic charging makes measurement of binding energies uncertain.

Modern materials technology is particularly concerned with the manufacture of composites; particulate, fibre and laminate composites are all well known and the key to their success often lies within the interface between the phases. Transfer of load across the interface places particular requirements on adhesion at the phase boundary and an understanding of the locus of failure during destructive testing is crucial to the development of satisfactory bonding processes. In coated and laminated products there is no problem in the use of XPS, with its excellent chemical sensitivity but there is a problem of increasing magnitude in fibre and particulate composites as the substructures become finer. This stems, of course, from the difficulty of providing a focused source of X-rays of sufficient magnitude. Imaging XPS is slowly becoming a reality with several systems having a capability of 10μm now available, and one of the markets for such instruments is that of composite materials.

There are important areas of Materials Science in which XPS has been displaced by other techniques such as SIMS. One such area is that of polymer surface analysis. The selectivity of XPS for substituent groups in the surface region is not good. Derivitization methods have made an impact, enabling acidic or basic groups to be determined, but SIMS, which has the ability to detach molecular clusters, has obvious advantages which will become increasingly exploited aa the problems of charging become solved. Until then however XPS will continue to find a role in polymer research and development.

Type
XI. Thin-Film and Surface Characterization by XRS and XPS
Information
Advances in X-Ray Analysis , Volume 35 , Issue B: First Pacific-International Congress on X-ray Analytical Methods (PICXAM). Fortieth Annual Conference on Applications of X-ray Analysis, August 7-16, 1991 , 1991 , pp. 869 - 882
Copyright
Copyright © International Centre for Diffraction Data 1991

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Castle, J. E. and West, R. H.; J.Elec.Spec. and Rel.Phenom, 19, 409–428,(1980)Google Scholar
Castle, J. E., Hazell, L. B. and West, R. H.; Ibid, 16, 97-106,(1979)Google Scholar
Edgel, M. J.,Paynter, R. W., and Castle, J. E.; ibid, 37, 241-256,(1985)Google Scholar
Castle, J. E. and West, R. F.; ibid, 18, 355-338,(1980)Google Scholar
Gelius, U. et.Al; ibid,52, 747-785(1990), see also P.Coxon, same journal M.P.Seah, pages 311-356 in “Practical Surfaces Analysis’ 2nd.Edn. D.Briggs and M.P.Seah Eds. John Wiley and Sons. Chichester Engand (1990)Google Scholar
Castle, J.E. and Ke, R.; Corros.Sci. 30, 409–428,(1990)Google Scholar
Cazaux, J.; Rev.Phys.Appl. 10, 263–280,(1975)Google Scholar
Beamson, G., Porter, H., and Turner, D.; Nature, 290, 556,(1981)Google Scholar
Hovland, C.; Appl.Phys.Letrs, 30, 274,(1979)Google Scholar
Castle, J. E.; Nature,(Phys Sci) 234, 93,(1971)Google Scholar
Gardeila, J. A., Ferguson, S. A. and Chin, R. L., Appl.Spectros., 40, 224,(1986)Google Scholar
Wagner, C. D. and Biloen, P.; Surf.Sci. 35, 82,(1973)Google Scholar
Wagner, C. D. and Josbi, A.; J.Elec.Spec and Rel.Phenom. 47, 283–313,(1988) NIST DatabaseGoogle Scholar
Edgell, M. J., Mugford, S., Castle, J. E. and Pirie, N. A.; J.Electrochem.Soc. 137, 201–206, (1990)Google Scholar
Seah, M. P. and Dench, W.; Surf.Interface Anal. 1, 2–11, (1974)Google Scholar
Faynter, R. W.; Surf. Interface Anal. 3, 186,(1981)Google Scholar
Streblow, H.H.; Surf.Interface Anal. 12, 363–379,(1988)Google Scholar
Pireaux, J. J.; Proc.Int.Cong.Elec. Spectros.4, Honolulu, (1989)Google Scholar
Briggs, D.; pages 450-454 in ‘Practical Surfaces Analysis’ 2nd.Edn. D.Briggs and M.P.Seah Eds. John Wiley and Sons. Chichester Engand (1990)Google Scholar
Castle, J. R.; ‘The Application of Surface Analytical Methods to Environmental/Material Interactions’ D.R.Baer, G.R.Clayton and G.D.Davis Eds. The Electrochem. Soc.NJ. (1991) pp 1-21Google Scholar
Olefjord, I.; and H. Fischmeister; Corros.Sci. 17, 677–707,(1975)Google Scholar
Asami, K., Hashimoto, K., and Shimodaira, S.; Corros.Sci. 17, 153–160,(1978)Google Scholar
Castle, J. E. and Clayton, C. R.; Corros.Sci. 17, 7–26,(1977)Google Scholar
Clayton, C. R. and Castle, J. E.; ‘The Passivity of Metals’ R.Frankenthal and J.Kruger, Eds. p.714 (1978) The Electrochem .Soc.Princeton NJ.Google Scholar
Castle, J. K. and Qiu, J. H.; J.Electrochem Soc, 137, 2031–2036,(1990)Google Scholar
Kircheim, R., Heine, B., H. Fischmeister, Hofmann, S., Knote, H. and Stotz, U.; Corros. Sci. 29, 899–917,(1989)Google Scholar
Marcus, P. and Olefjord, L.; Corros.Sci. 28, 589,(1988)Google Scholar
Sedriks, A. J., Int.Met.Rev.,28, 295–307,(1983)Google Scholar
Kato, C., Pickering, H. W. and Castle, J. E.; J.Electrochem.Soc. 131,1225–1229,(1984)Google Scholar
Castle, J. E. Epler, D. C. and Peplow, D. B.; Corros.Sci. 16,145–157,(1976)Google Scholar
Watts, J. F.; Surf.Interface Anal. 12, 497,(1988)Google Scholar
Castle, J. E. and Watts, J. F.; J.Mats.Sci. 18, 2987–3003,(1983)Google Scholar
Castle, J. E. and Watts, J. F.; I&EC Product Development, 24, 361–369,(1985)Google Scholar
Watts, J. F., Castle, J. E. and Ludlam, S. J.; J.Mats.Sci. 21, 2965–2971,(1986)Google Scholar
Fowlkes, R. M.; Adhesion, J. Sci.Tech. 4, 669,(1990) see also ibid, 1,7,(1987)Google Scholar
Riggs, W. M.; Dupont Tech.Note (1974) The Use of Calcium Labelling for Acidic Groups on Polyethylene', see also W.M.Riggs and D.W.Dwight; J.Electron Spectros and Rel.Phenomena, 5, 447,(1974)Google Scholar
Kinloch, A. J., Kadokian, G. and Watts, J. F.; Proc.Roy.Soc. to be publishedGoogle Scholar
Gregg, S. J. and Sing, K. S. W.; ‘Adsorption, Surface Area and Porosity', 2nd Edition AP. London, (1982)Google Scholar
Chehimi, M. M., Watts, J. F., Jenkins, S. N. and Castle, J. E.; J.Mats.Chem. to be publishedGoogle Scholar
Harvey, J., Kozlowski, C. and Sherwood, P. M. A., J.Mats.Sci., 22, 1585–1596,(1987)Google Scholar
Baillie, C. A., Watts, J. F., Castle, J. E., Bader, M. G., Proc. ICCMVIII, Honolulu, Ed. S. Tsai and G.S.Springer, Pub. SAMPE, Paper 11A, (1991)Google Scholar
Wright, W., Composite Polymers, 3 (1), Ed. P.Dickin, Part 1: Z31, Part 2: 360,(1990)Google Scholar
Castle, J. E. and Watts, J. F., ‘Interfaces in Polymer Ceramic Metal Matrix Composites', H. Ishida Ed., Elsevier, 57-71 (1988)Google Scholar
46 Mitchell, D. F., Hussey, R. J. and Graham, M. J., J.Vac.Sci,Tech.A, 1, 1006, (1983)(1970)Google Scholar
47 Cazeneuve, C., Castle, J. E., Watts, J. F., J.Mats.Sci.,25, 1902–1908,(1990)Google Scholar
48 Hopfgarten, F., Fibre Sci.Tech.,11, 67–79,(1978)Google Scholar
49 Hopfgarten, F., Fibre Sci.Tech.,12, 283–294,(1979)Google Scholar
50 Brewis, D. M., Comyn, J., Fowler, J. R., Briggs, D., Gibson, V. A., Fibre Sci.Tech.,12, 41–52,(1979)Google Scholar
51 JtozIowski, C., Shcrwocd, P. M. A., Carbon,24, 357–363,(1986)Google Scholar
52 Waltersson, K., Fibre Sci.Tech.,17, 289–302,(1982)Google Scholar
53 Jshilani, A., Carbon,19, 269–275,(1981)Google Scholar
54 Takahagi, T., Ishitani, A., Carbon,22, 43–46,(1984)Google Scholar
55 Denison, P., Jones, F. R., Watts, J. R., J.Mater.Sci.,20, 4647–4656,(1985)Google Scholar
56 Denison, P., Jones, F. R., Watts, J. R., Surf.Interf.Anal., 12, 455–460,(1988)Google Scholar
57 DeVilbiss, T. A., Messick, D. L., Progar, D. J., Wighlman, J. P., Composites, 16, 207–219,(1985)Google Scholar