Draper & Rogers (2005, this issue) have put an important subject under the ethical microscope. They have demonstrated that the current, fairly simple, rules applying to the publication of case studies and dissemination of patient information in teaching are inadequate and need revision. This is particularly important because such forms of communication are likely to increase in the future. Many journals, including the British Journal of Psychiatry, generally frown upon case studies as representing little value to science: case studies unnecessarily focus on the particular; their message is only valuable when it is general. However, they aren't going to go away because their educational value is obvious, as anyone who looks at the handling of almost any scientific subject in the mass media will testify. Experts can pontificate on hypotheses, proportions, means and significance to little effect and the real message comes home from a sufferer or successfully treated patient who adds human flesh to a dry factual skeleton. This need to particularise is necessary in all parts of teaching.

The presence of cognitive deficits in schizophrenic illness has been extensively documented, and deficits in memory and executive functioning may be related to poor prognosis. Targeting these deficits during the early phase has potential benefits. The neural basis for cognitive deficits in schizophrenia is not well understood, and hence pharmacological interventions alone are insufficient. Future strategies should focus on pharmacological interventions combined with psychological techniques such as cognitive remediation. This review summarises recent findings relating to first-episode schizophrenia.

Draper & Rogers (2005, this issue) discuss the publication of case studies in psychiatry. They raise an issue in relation to consent that I would like to pursue in more detail: namely, what is it that we are asking patients to consent to when we ask them to participate in research?

There is increasing concern about the level of violence within mental healthcare settings. In this article I review what is known on this subject, discuss the relationship between mental disorder and violence and summarise the different ways to prevent and manage violence. When planning strategies to prevent violence in such settings it is important to consider not only patient risk factors but also risk factors in the environment. Staff need to have all the possible techniques for managing violent behaviour available to them in order to weigh up the risks and benefits for any specific patient in any particular situation.

Epidemiological studies measuring prevalence rates and factors associated with mental health problems in adults with learning disability have produced very different and sometimes contradictory results, mainly because of methodological problems. Consequently, much of the epidemiology of mental health problems in this population is still unknown, although improved methodology and additional information are emerging. This article describes the methodological difficulties of studies, the reported prevalence rates in the context of these difficulties and what is currently known about the factors associated with mental health problems in this population.

Generally, people with learning disabilities now live in community settings and use generic health services. Those who develop behavioural or psychiatric disturbances may be taken to a hospital accident and emergency (A&E) department. An A&E visit can be the starting point of a comprehensive assessment of these disturbances. This article provides a framework for the initial assessment, management and disposition of patients with learning disabilities and behavioural disturbance presenting to an A&E department.

Sexually disinhibited behaviours are quite common (prevalence 2–17%) in people with dementia, occurring with about equal frequency in men and women. Assessment of the behaviours, the contexts in which they arise and their risks is essential. It is important to manage the environment and to educate and discuss the issues with carers and families. Behavioural measures are helpful, although no specific behavioural intervention has been shown to be effective in this area. Several classes of drug may help to control the behaviours, but all are potentially harmful and none is licensed for hypersexuality in this population.

Psychotic symptoms in elderly people can be seen in a variety of conditions. This article reviews treatment strategies (both pharmacological and non-pharmacological) for such symptoms in schizophrenia and neurodegenerative disorders in this population. Traditionally, antipsychotics have been the most commonly used treatment for psychotic symptoms. Their usefulness in treating schizophrenia, both chronic and late onset, is well established and the atypical antipsychotics, which have a better side-effect profile, are more suitable for elderly people. More recently, there have been increasing concerns about their safety in psychoses due to dementia. The debate about whether an absolute ban on their use is required is still ongoing, but it has highlighted the need for adopting and developing non-pharmacological interventions.

Adverse effects of psychotropic medication on breast-fed infants have not been studied in controlled and systematic research. Existing information comes from small case series and single case reports. These limited data confirm that psychotropics are excreted into breast milk and that the infant is exposed to them. In recent decades sufficient data have accumulated to allow psychiatrists to prescribe tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, conventional antipsychotics, carbamazepine and sodium valproate to breast-feeding mothers with safety. There are not sufficient data on atypical antipsychotics to allow women to breast-feed safely. Mothers on clozapine or lithium should not breast-feed. It is good practice to recommend that breast-feeding mothers requiring psychotropic medication be on a low dose of one single drug. Future research taking account of maternal mental health, psychopharmacological factors, infant physiological environment and individualised risk/benefit assessment will yield clearer responses to this complex issue.

People with schizophrenia die prematurely. Their illness, its treatment and their lifestyle all contribute to the excess morbidity and mortality. Lifestyle ‘choices' (e.g. poor diet, low rates of physical activity and increased likelihood to smoke cigarettes) predispose them to poor physical health and comorbid medical diseases. In addition, weight gain and obesity are a consequence of most antipsychotics, particularly the atypicals. Excessive body weight increases the risk of morbidity and mortality, and is the biggest risk factor for type II diabetes in schizophrenia. Much of the excess mortality of schizophrenia is preventable through lifestyle and risk factor modification and the treatment of common diseases, but the potential for improving outcomes in this area is only starting to be addressed.

Recent developments in medical education and in UK government policy for the training and service commitment of junior doctors have highlighted the need to examine clinical teaching. There is growing evidence of the effectiveness of more structured approaches to patient-based teaching. The scope of what can be taught includes the three domains of knowledge, skill and attitudes. There are proven models to deliver teaching not only of patient assessment and management but also of all aspects of the doctor–patient relationship. The application of patient-based teaching is entirely consonant with the rigours of the outcome-based approach to curriculum planning and delivery. The successful, thoughtful adoption of patient-based teaching is part of the ‘professionalisation’ of education in psychiatry that in turn begs questions about the learning, accreditation and reward of those involved as teachers at all levels.

The role that carers play in supporting older people with mental health needs in the community is well recognised by professionals and in current government policy. This article promotes the view that a systematic planned approach that engages the carer as an integral part of the system of care has potential benefits for patients, carers and services. Ways of working in partnership are outlined and evidence that psychosocial interventions with carers are effective is briefly reviewed. Examples of individual and group interventions for dementia carers are given, drawing on clinical experience and research literature. Areas for further development are highlighted, including greater partnerships with carers in primary and continuing care, as well as at the level of planning and service development.

Medications often induce neuropsychiatric side-effects. This article reviews psychiatric side-effects that are well known and describes those induced by recently developed medications. Therapeutic innovations have been prominent in the treatment of HIV infection, Parkinson's disease and epilepsy and therefore psychiatric side-effects caused by these agents are described in more detail.

Psychiatrists rarely enquire about caffeine intake when assessing patients. This may lead to a failure to identify caffeine-related problems and offer appropriate interventions. Excessive caffeine ingestion leads to symptoms that overlap with those of many psychiatric disorders. Caffeine is implicated in the exacerbation of anxiety and sleep disorders, and people with eating disorders often misuse it. It antagonises adenosine receptors, which may potentiate dopaminergic activity and exacerbate psychosis. In psychiatric in-patients, caffeine has been found to increase anxiety, hostility and psychotic symptoms. Assessment of caffeine intake should form part of routine psychiatric assessment and should be carried out before prescribing hypnotics. Gradual reduction in intake or gradual substitution with caffeine-free alternatives is probably preferable to abrupt cessation. Decaffeinated beverages should be provided on psychiatric wards.

Shared care in mental health is now a policy imperative in England and Wales, yet its meaning, form and function are still open to debate. In this article, I discuss the benefits of and barriers to a shared care approach, explain how policy is currently driving practice in this area, discuss recent shared care initiatives and highlight some of the tensions inherent in the approach, particularly from the viewpoint of patients. I also give some of the key factors that need to be in place within a ‘whole systems' approach to ensure that shared care moves from the rhetoric of the statute book to everyday practice.

Nidotherapy is the formal term introduced to describe the systematic manipulation of the physical and social environment to help achieve a better fit for a person with a persistent or permanent mental disorder. This approach is described in detail and its merits are compared with more conventional ways of dealing with such problems. This involves the creation of a certain number of terms that may be viewed as unnecessary jargon but help to shorten communication in an area where systematic monitored interventions are relatively uncommon.

By focusing therapeutic effort on the early stages of psychotic disorders, effective early intervention should improve short- and long-term outcomes. Strategies include pre-psychotic and prodromal interventions to prevent emergence of psychosis, detecting untreated cases in the community and facilitating recovery in established cases of psychosis. The evidence base for each of these strategies is currently limited, although several international trials are under way. The Department of Health in the UK has announced the intention of setting up 50 early intervention services nationally, several of which are already operational. In this article, we briefly discuss the differing ways in which early intervention is conceptualised, summarise the evidence supporting it in established cases of psychosis, suggest appropriate service models and describe two early intervention services in south-west London.

Benchmarking has been advocated by the Department of Health as a tool of clinical governance. The essence of benchmarking is learning from the best practice of others. Its ability to compare services and outcomes of care can facilitate change, ensuring quality control and continuous service improvement. The concept is in its infancy in the National Health Service despite its exceptionally rapid growth in business organisations over the past 25 years. Many of the characteristics that make the process so valuable in business are equally relevant in healthcare. This article reviews the history of benchmarking and describes its application in mental health services for improving patient care. It includes an analysis of the centrality of the benchmarking doctrine to the core principles of clinical governance and reflects on the assets health services possess to facilitate benchmarking. It concentrates on the principles of setting up a team and uses a case example to highlight the organisational and clinical effect that a benchmarking project could have.

Of the many interactions with psychotropic drugs, a minority are potentially hazardous. Most interactions are pharmacodynamic, resulting from augmented or antagonistic actions at a receptor or from different mechanisms in the same tissue. Most important pharmacokinetic interactions are due to effects on metabolism or renal excretion. The major enzymes involved in metabolism belong to the cytochrome P450 (CYP) system. Genetic variation in the CYP system produces people who are ‘poor’, ‘extensive’ or ‘ultra-rapid’ drug metabolisers. Hazardous interactions more often result from enzyme inhibition, but the probability of interaction depends on the initial level of enzyme activity and the availability of alternative metabolic routes for elimination of the drug. There is currently interest in interactions involving uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferases and the P-glycoprotein cell transport system, but their importance for psychotropics has yet to be defined. The most serious interactions with psychotropics result in profound sedation, central nervous system toxicity, large changes in blood pressure, ventricular arrhythmias, an increased risk of dangerous side-effects or a decreased therapeutic effect of one of the interacting drugs.