Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T14:55:42.058Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

(Mis)Informed: What Americans Know About Social Groups and Why it Matters for Politics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 May 2021

Marisa Abrajano
Affiliation:
University of California, San Diego
Nazita Lajevardi
Affiliation:
Michigan State University

Summary

This Element examines just how much the public knows about some of America's most stigmatized social groups, who comprise 40.3% of the population, and evaluates whether misinformation matters for shaping policy attitudes and candidate support. The authors design and field an original survey containing large national samples of Black, Latino, Asian, Muslim, and White Americans, and include measures of misinformation designed to assess the amount of factual information that individuals possess about these groups. They find that Republicans, Whites, the most racially resentful, and consumers of conservative news outlets are the most likely to be misinformed about socially marginalized groups. Their analysis also indicates that misinformation predicts hostile policy support on racialized issues; it is also positively correlated with support for Trump. They then conducted three studies aimed at correcting misinformation. Their research speaks to the prospects of a well-functioning democracy, and its ramifications on the most marginalized.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781108882224
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 24 June 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Bibliography

Abrajano, Marisa A. 2015. “Reassessing the racial gap in political knowledge.Journal of Politics 77(1):4454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrajano, Marisa and Hajnal, Zoltan L. 2015. White backlash: Immigration, race, and American politics. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ahler, Douglas J., and Sood, Gaurav. 2018. “The parties in our heads: Misperceptions about party composition and their consequences.The Journal of Politics 80(3):964981. URL: https://doi.org/10.1086/697253CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allcott, Hunt and Gentzkow, Matthew. 2017. “Social media and fake news in the 2016 election.Journal of Economic Perspectives 31(2):211236.Google Scholar
Allport, Gordon. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Anspach, Nicolas M., and Carlson, Taylor N.. 2018. “What to believe? Social media commentary and belief in misinformation.Political Behavior pp. 122.Google Scholar
Aziz, Sahar F. 2017. “A Muslim registry: The precursor to internment.BYU Law Review p. 779.Google Scholar
Barberá, Pablo. 2018. Explaining the spread of misinformation on social media: Evidence from the 2016 US presidential election. In Symposium: Fake News and the Politics of Misinformation. American Political Science Association Comparative Politics Newsletter.Google Scholar
Barkan, Steven E., and Cohn, Steven F.. 2005. “Why whites favor spending more money to fight crime: The role of racial prejudice.Social Problems 52(2):300314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 1996. “Uninformed votes: Information effects in presidential elections.American Journal of Political Science pp. 194230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 2000. “Partisanship and voting behavior, 1952–1996.American Journal of Political Science pp. 3550.Google Scholar
Benegal, Salil D. 2018. “The spillover of race and racial attitudes into public opinion about climate change.Environmental Politics 27(4):733756.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berelson, Bernard R., Lazarsfeld, Paul F., and McPhee, William N.. 1954. Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Berg, Charles Ramirez. 1990. “Stereotyping in films in general and of the Hispanic in particular.Howard Journal of Communications 2(3):286300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berg, Charles Ramirez. 2002. Latino Images in Film: Stereotypes, Subversion and Resistance. University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Berinsky, Adam. 2015. “Rumors and health care reform: Experiments in political misinformation.British Journal of Political Science 47(2):241262.Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence D., and Johnson, Devon. 2004. “A taste for punishment: Black and white Americans’ views on the death penalty and the war on drugs.Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 1(1):151180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence D., Jr.Oliver, Melvin L., Johnson, James H. and Jr.Valenzuela, Abel 2000. Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles. Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2015. The Structure of Racism in color-blind, “post-racial” America. Sage Publications: Los Angeles, CA.Google Scholar
Boussalis, Constantine and Coan, Travis G.. 2017. “Elite polarization and correcting misinformation in the “post-truth eraJournal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. 6(4): 405408.”.Google Scholar
Budak, Ceren, Goel, Sharad and Rao, Justin M.. 2016. “Fair and balanced? Quantifying media bias through crowdsourced content analysis.Public Opinion Quarterly 80(S1):250271.Google Scholar
Calfano, Brian. 2018. Muslims, Identity, and American Politics. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calfano, Brian Robert, Lajevardi, Nazita and Michelson, Melissa R.. 2017. “Trumped up challenges: limitations, opportunities, and the future of political research on Muslim Americans.Politics, Groups, and Identities pp. 111.Google Scholar
Campbell, Angus, Converse, Philip E., Miller, Warren E. and Stokes, Donald E.. 1960. The American Voter. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Carlson, Matt. 2018. “Fake news as an informational moral panic: the symbolic deviancy of social media during the 2016 US presidential election.Information, Communication & Society pp. 115.Google Scholar
Carlson, Taylor, Abrajano, Marisa and Bedolla, Lisa Garcia. 2020. Talking Politics: Political Discussion Networks and the New American Electorate. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, Taylor N. 2019. “Through the grapevine: Informational consequences of interpersonal political communication.American Political Science Review 113(2):325339.Google Scholar
Cassiman, Shawn A. 2008. “Resisting the neo-liberal poverty discourse: On constructing deadbeat dads and welfare queens.Sociology Compass 2(5):16901700.Google Scholar
Chakraborty, Jayajit, Maantay, Juliana A and Brender, Jean D. 2011. “Disproportionate proximity to environmental health hazards: Methods, models, and measurement.American Journal of Public Health 101(S1):S27S36.Google Scholar
Chavez, Leo Ralph. 2001. Covering Immigration: Popular Images and the Politics of the Nation. University of California Press Berkeley.Google Scholar
Chavez, Leo. 2008. The Latino Threat: Constructing Immigrants, Citizens and the Nation. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Chavez, Leo. 2013. The Latino threat: Constructing Immigrants, Citizens, and the Nation. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Cathy J. 1999. The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Collingwood, Loren, Lajevardi, Nazita and Oskooii, Kassra AR. 2018. “A change of heart? Why individual-level public opinion shifted against Trump’s ‘Muslim Ban’.Political Behavior 40(4):10351072.Google Scholar
Collins, Patricia Hill. 2002. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Routledge.Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert. 1971. “Polyarchy: participation and opposition.New Haven.Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert Alan. 1989. Democracy and Its Critics. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dalisay, Francis and Tan, Alexis. 2009. “Assimilation and contrast effects in the priming of Asian American and African American stereotypes through TV exposure.Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 86(1):722.Google Scholar
Davis, Joshua T. 2019. “Funding God’s policies, defending whiteness: Christian nationalism and whites’ attitudes towards racially-coded government spending.Ethnic and Racial Studies 42(12):21232142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 1995. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics. Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DellaVigna, Stefano and Kaplan, Ethan. 2007. “The Fox News effect: Media bias and voting*.The Quarterly Journal of Economics 122(3):11871234. URL: https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.122.3.1187Google Scholar
Carpini, Delli, Delli, Michael X. and Keeter, Scott. 1996. What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., and Gaertner, S. L. (eds.). 1986. Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Druckman, James N. 2004. “Political preference formation: Competition, deliberation, and the (Ir)relevance of framing effects.American Political Science Review 98(4):671686.Google Scholar
Druckman, James N., and Nelson, Kjersten R.. 2003. “Framing and deliberation: How citizens’ conversations limit elite influence.American Journal of Political Science 47(4):729745. URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1540–5907.00051Google Scholar
Enders, Adam M and Scott, Jamil S. 2019. “The increasing racialization of American electoral politics, 1988–2016.American Politics Research 47(2):275303.Google Scholar
Enos, Ryan D. 2014. “Causal effect of intergroup contact on exclusionary attitudes.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(10): 36993704. URL: www.pnas.org/content/111/10/3699CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eric Oliver, J and Wong, Janelle. 2003. “Intergroup prejudice in multiethnic settings.American journal of political science 47(4):567582.Google Scholar
Farkas, Johan and Schou, Jannick. 2018. “Fake news as a floating signifier: Hegemony, antagonism and the politics of falsehood.Javnost—The Public 25(3):298314. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2018.1463047CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farris, Emily M., and Mohamed, Heather Silber. 2018. “Picturing immigration: How the media criminalizes immigrants.Politics, Groups, and Identities 6(4):814824. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1484375Google Scholar
Fearon, James D. 1999. “Electoral accountability and the control of politicians: selecting good types versus sanctioning poor performance.Democracy, Accountability, and Representation 55: 61.Google Scholar
Flynn, D. J., Nyhan, Brendan and Reifler, Jason. 2017. “The nature and origins of misperceptions: Understanding false and unsupported beliefs about politics.Political Psychology 38: 127150.Google Scholar
Fong, Timothy. 1998. The Contemporary Asian American Experience: Beyond the Model Minority. Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Fujioka, Yuki. 1999. “Television portrayals and African-American stereotypes: Examination of television effects when direct contact is lacking.Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 76(1):5275.Google Scholar
García Bedolla, Lisa. 2005. Fluid Borders: Latino Power, Identity, and Politics in Los Angeles. Univ of California Press.Google Scholar
García Bedolla, Lisa. 2015. Latino Politics. Polity: UK.Google Scholar
Ghandoosh, Nazgol. 2019. “U.S. prison population trends: Massive Buildup and Modest Decline.” Briefing Paper. URL: www.sentencingproject.org/publications/u-s-prison-population-trends-massive-buildup-and-modest-decline/Google Scholar
Zúñiga, Gil de, Homero, Teresa Correa and Valenzuela, Sebastian. 2012. “Selective exposure to cable news and immigration in the U.S.: The relationship between FOX News, CNN, and attitudes toward Mexican immigrants.Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 56(4):597615. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2012.732138Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin. 1996. “Race coding” and white opposition to welfare.American Political Science Review 90(3):593604.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin. 2001. “Political ignorance and collective policy preferences.American Political Science Review 95(2):379396.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin. 2009. Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Giliam, Frank and Iyengar, Shanto. 2000. “Prime suspects: The influence of local television news on the viewing public.American Journal of Political Science. 44(3): 560573.Google Scholar
Jr. Gilliam, Franklin D. 1999. “The “welfare queen” experiment.Nieman Reports 53(2):49.Google Scholar
Jr. Gilliam, Franklin D., Iyengar, Shanto, Simon, Adam and Wright, Oliver. 1996. “Crime in black and white: The violent, scary world of local news.Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 1(3):623.Google Scholar
Goldberg, David Theo. 2002. The Racial State. Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Gonzalez O’Brien, Benjamin, Barreto, Matt A. and Sanchez, Gabriel R.. 2020. “They’re all out to get me! Assessing inter-group competition among multiple populations.Politics, Groups, and Identities 8(5):867893.Google Scholar
Green, Donald, Palmquist, Bradley and Schickler, Eric. 2002. Partisan Hearts and Minds: Political Parties and the Social Identities of Voters. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Green, Eva G. T., Staerkle, Christian and Sears, David O.. 2006. “Symbolic racism and Whites’ attitudes towards punitive and preventive crime policies.Law and Human Behavior 30(4):435454.Google Scholar
Greenberg, Bradley S., Mastro, Dana and Brand, Jeffrey E.. 2002. “Minorities and the mass media: Television into the 21st century.Media effects: Advances in Theory and Research pp. 333351.Google Scholar
Grinberg, Nir, Joseph, Kenneth, Friedland, Lisa, Swire-Thompson, Briony and Lazer, David. 2019. “Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election.Science 363(6425):374378.Google Scholar
Gutierrez, Lorraine M. 1995. “Understanding the empowerment process: Does consciousness make a difference?Social Work Research 19(4):229237.Google Scholar
Hamamoto, Darrell Y. 1994. Monitored Peril: Asian Americans and the Politics of TV Representation. University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Harris, Allison P., Walker, Hannah L. and Eckhouse, Laurel. 2020. “No justice, no peace: political science perspectives on the American carceral state.Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 5(3):427449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hochschild, Jennifer and Einstein, Katherine Levine. 2015 a. “‘It isn’t what we don’t know that gives us trouble, it’s what we know that ain’t so’: Misinformation and democratic politics.British Journal of Political Science 45(3):467475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hochschild, Jennifer L., and Einstein, Katherine Levine. 2015 b. Do facts matter?: Information and misinformation in American politics. Vol. 13. University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Huckfeldt, Robert and Sprague, John. 1987. “Networks in context: The social flow of political information.American Political Science Review 81(4):11971216.Google Scholar
Hunt, Darnell and Ramon, Ana-Christina. 2010. Black Los Angeles: American dreams and racial realities. New York University Press.Google Scholar
Hunt, Darnell M. 1999. OJ Simpson facts and fictions: News rituals in the construction of reality. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hunt, Darnell M. 2005. Channeling blackness: Studies on television and race in America. Oxford University Press, USA.Google Scholar
Hurwitz, Jon and Peffley, Mark. 2005. “Playing the race card in the post–Willie Horton era: The impact of racialized code words on support for punitive crime policy.Public Opinion Quarterly 69(1):99112.Google Scholar
Jackson, Jenn M. 2019. “Black Americans and the “crime narrative”: comments on the use of news frames and their impacts on public opinion formation.Politics, Groups, and Identities 7(1):231241.Google Scholar
Jamal, Amaney. 2009. “The Racialization of Muslim Americans.Muslims in Western Politics pp. 200215.Google Scholar
Jardina, Ashley and Traguott, Michael. 2019. “The genesis of the birther rumor: Partisanship, racial attitudes, and political knowledge.Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 4(1):6080.Google Scholar
Jones-Correa, Michael. 1998. Between two nations: The political predicament of Latinos in New York City. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Jost, J. T., Glaser, J. Kruglanski, A. W., and Sulloway, F. J. 2003. “Political conservatism as motivated social cognition.Psychological Bulletin 129(3):339375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Junn, Jane and Masuoka, Natalie. 2008. “Asian American identity: Shared racial status and political context.Perspectives on Politics pp. 729740.Google Scholar
Key, V. O. 1966. The responsible electorate. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kim, Claire Jean. 1999. “The racial triangulation of Asian Americans.Politics & Society 27(1):105138.Google Scholar
Kim, Claire Jean. 2000. “Playing the racial trump card: Asian Americans in contemporary US politics.Amerasia Journal 26(3):3565.Google Scholar
Kim, Claire Jean. 2018. “Are Asians the New Blacks?: Affirmative action, anti-blackness, and the ‘sociometry’of race.Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 15(2):217244.Google Scholar
Kim, Minjeong and Chung, Angie. 2005. “Consuming orientalism: Images of Asian/American women in multicultural advertising.Qualitative Sociology 28(1):6791.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald and Sears, David O.. 1981. “Prejudice and politics: Symbolic racism versus racial threats to the good life.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(3):414431.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald and Kalmoe, Nathan P. 2017. Neither Liberal nor Conservative: Ideological innocence in the American public. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald and Sanders, Lynn M.. 1996. Divided by race: Racial politics and democratic ideals. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Klofstad, Casey A. 2010. “The Lasting Effect of Civic Talk on Civic Participation: Evidence from a Panel Study.Social Forces 88(5):23532375. URL: https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2010.0047Google Scholar
Kozlovic, Anton Karl. 2007. “Islam, Muslims and Arabs in the popular Hollywood cinema.Comparative Islamic Studies 3(2):213246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuklinski, James H., Quirk, Paul J., Jerit, Jennifer, Schwieder, David and Rich, Robert F.. 2000. “Misinformation and the currency of democratic citizenship.Journal of Politics 62(3):790816.Google Scholar
Lajevardi, Nazita. 2020. Outsiders at home: The politics of American Islamophobia. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lajevardi, Nazita. 2021. “The media matters: Muslim American Portrayals and the Effects on Mass Attitudes.” The Journal of Politics Forthcoming, 2021. URL: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/711300Google Scholar
Lajevardi, Nazita, Oskooii, Kassra A. R. and Walker, Hannah L. 2020. “Social Media Information Consumption and Support for Anti-Muslim American Policy Proposals.” Working Paper.Google Scholar
Lajevardi, Nazita and Abrajano, Marisa. 2019. “How negative sentiment toward Muslim Americans predicts support for Trump in the 2016 Presidential Election.Journal of Politics 81(1):296302.Google Scholar
Larson, Stephanie G. 2006. Media & minorities: The Politics of race in news and entertainment. Rowan & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, Stephan, Ecker, Ullrich K. H. and Cook, John. 2017. “Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era.Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 6(4):353369. URL: www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211368117300700Google Scholar
Lipsitz, George. 1998. The possessive investment in whiteness: How white people profit from identity politics. Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Lopez, Ian Haney. 1997. White by law: The legal construction of race. NYU Press.Google Scholar
Lopez, Jesse and Hillygus, D. Sunshine. 2018. “Why so serious?: Survey trolls and misinformation.” SSRN. URL: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3131087Google Scholar
Lupia, Arthur. 2016. Uninformed: Why people know so little about politics and what we can do about it. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, Gregory J., and Yurukoglu, Ali. 2017. “Bias in cable news: Persuasion and polarization.American Economic Review 107(9):25652599.Google Scholar
Mason, Lilliana. 2018. “Ideologues without issues: The polarizing consequences of ideological identities.Public Opinion Quarterly 82(S1): 866887.Google Scholar
McConahay, J. B. 1986. “Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale.Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale, 40(Dovidio, J. F. & Gaertner, S. L. (eds.)):91125.Google Scholar
Mendelberg, Tali. 2001. The race card: Campaign strategy, implicit messages, and the norm of equality. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Michener, Jamila. 2019. “Policy feedback in a racialized polity.Policy Studies Journal 47(2):423450.Google Scholar
Miller, Joanne M., Saunders, Kyle L. and Farhart, Christina E.. 2016. “Conspiracy endorsement as motivated reasoning: The moderating roles of political knowledge and trust.American Journal of Political Science 60(4):824844. URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ajps.12234Google Scholar
Min, Seong-Jae and Feaster, John C.. 2010. “Missing children in national news coverage: Racial and gender representations of missing children cases.Communication Research Reports 27(3):207216. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/08824091003776289Google Scholar
Mitchell, Joshua L., and Toner, Brendan. 2016. “Exploring the foundations of US state-level anti-sharia initiatives.Politics and Religion 9(4):720743.Google Scholar
Moses, Michele S., Maeda, Daryl J. and Paguyo, Christina H.. 2019. “Racial politics, resentment, and affirmative action: Asian Americans as ‘model’ college applicants.The Journal of Higher Education 90(1):126.Google Scholar
Mutz, Diana C. 2002. “Cross-cutting social networks: Testing democratic theory in practice.American Political Science Review 96(1):111126.Google Scholar
Nacos, Brigette and Torres-Reyna, Oscar. 2007. Fueling our fears: Stereotyping, media coverage, and public opinion of Muslim Americans. Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Ngai, Mae M. 2014. Impossible subjects: Illegal aliens and the making of modern America. Updated ed. Vol. 105. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Nithyanand, Rishab, Schaffner, Brian and Gill, Phillipa. 2017. “Online political discourse in the Trump era.” arXiv preprint arXiv:1711.05303.Google Scholar
Nyhan, Brendan. 2010. Why the “death panel” myth wouldn’t die: Misinformation in the health care reform debate. In The Forum. Vol. 8. De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Nyhan, Brendan and Reifler, Jason. 2010. “When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions.Political Behavior 32(2):303330.Google Scholar
Nyhan, Brendan and Reifler, Jason. 2015. “Estimating fact-checking’s effects.” Arlington, VA: American Press Institute.Google Scholar
Nyhan, Brendan, Reifler, Jason and Ubel, Peter A.. 2013. “The hazards of correcting myths about health care reform.Medical Care pp. 127132.Google Scholar
Ojeda, Christopher, Whitesell, Anne M, Berkman, Michael B and Plutzer, Eric. 2019. “Federalism and the Racialization of Welfare Policy.State Politics & Policy Quarterly 19(4):474501.Google Scholar
Oskooii, Kassra A. R, Dana, Karam and Barreto, Matthew A.. 2019. “Beyond generalized ethnocentrism: Islam-specific beliefs and prejudice toward Muslim Americans.Politics, Groups, and Identities pp. 128.Google Scholar
Oskooii, Kassra A. R., Lajevardi, Nazita and Collingwood, Loren. 2019. “Opinion shift and stability: The information environment and long-lasting opposition to Trump’s Muslim ban.Political Behavior pp. 137.Google Scholar
Parker, Christopher S. 2009. “When politics becomes protest: Black veterans and political activism in the postwar South.The Journal of Politics 71(1):113131.Google Scholar
Pask, Gordon. 1976. Conversation theory: Applications in education and epistemology. Elsevier.Google Scholar
Pearson, Adam R., Schuldt, Jonathon P., Romero-Canyas, Rainer, Ballew, Matthew T. and Larson-Konar, Dylan. 2018. “Diverse segments of the US public underestimate the environmental concerns of minority and low-income Americans.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(49):1242912434.Google Scholar
Peffley, Mark and Hurwitz, Jon. 2002. “The racial components of “race-neutral” crime policy attitudes.Political Psychology 23(1):5975.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peffley, Mark, Hurwitz, Jon and Mondak, Jeffery. 2017. “Racial attributions in the justice system and support for punitive crime policies.American Politics Research 45(6):10321058.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efren. 2016. Unspoken politics: Implicit attitudes and political thinking. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pérez, Efrén O. 2015. “Xenophobic rhetoric and its political effects on immigrants and their co-ethnics.American Journal of Political Science 59(3):549564.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, Thomas F. 1997. “Generalized intergroup contact effects on prejudice.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin pp. 173185.Google Scholar
Popkin, Samuel L. 1994. The reasoning voter: Communication and persuasion in presidential campaigns. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Reardon, Sean F., Fox, Lindsay and Townsend, Joseph. 2015. “Neighborhood income composition by household race and income, 1990–2009.The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 660(1):7897. URL: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716215576104Google Scholar
Redlawsk, David P. 2002. “Hot cognition or cool consideration? Testing the effects of motivated reasoning on political decision making.Journal of Politics 64(4):10211044. URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1468–2508.00161Google Scholar
Rippy, Alyssa E., and Newman, Elana. 2006. “Perceived religious discrimination and its relationship to anxiety and paranoia among Muslim Americans.Journal of Muslim Mental Health 1(1):520.Google Scholar
Said, Edward. 1978 Orientalism. New York: VintageGoogle Scholar
Salinas, Eduardo. 2020. “Affirmative action for whom? An experiment on Latino policy preferences.” URL: https://preprints.apsanet.org/engage/apsa/article-details/5ec52d8044d2c2001968b9ccGoogle Scholar
Santa Ana, Otto. 2002. Brown tide rising: Metaphors of Latinos in contemporary American public discourse. University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Schaffner, Brian F., and Roche, Cameron. 2016. “Misinformation and motivated reasoning: Responses to economic news in a politicized environment.Public Opinion Quarterly 81(1):86110.Google Scholar
Schaffner, Brian F., and Luks, Samantha. 2018. “Misinformation or expressive responding? What an inauguration crowd can tell us about the source of political misinformation in surveys.Public Opinion Quarterly 82(1):135147. URL: https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfx042Google Scholar
Scheufele, Dietram A., and Krause, Nicole M.. 2019. “Science audiences, misinformation, and fake news.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(16):76627669. URL: www.pnas.org/content/116/16/7662Google Scholar
Schumpeter, Joseph Alois. 1950. Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. Harper and Brothers.Google Scholar
Sediqe, Nura A. 2020. “Stigma consciousness and American identity: The case of Muslims in the United States.PS: Political Science & Politics pp. 15.Google Scholar
Segura, Gary M and Valenzuela, Ali A. 2010. “Hope, tropes, and dopes: Hispanic and white racial animus in the 2008 election.Presidential Studies Quarterly 40(3):497514.Google Scholar
Selod, Saher. 2015. “Citizenship denied: The racialization of Muslim American men and women post-9/11.Critical Sociology 41(1):7795.Google Scholar
Shaheen, Jack G. 2003. “Reel bad Arabs: How Hollywood vilifies a people.The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 588(1):171193.Google Scholar
Shaheen, Jack G. 2007. “Hollywood’s Muslim Arabs.Muslim World 90(1):2242.Google Scholar
Sides, John and Gross, Kimberly. 2013. “Stereotypes of Muslims and support for the war on terror.The Journal of Politics 75(3):583598.Google Scholar
Smith, Candis Watts. 2014. Black mosaic: The politics of Black pan-ethnic diversity. New York University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Rogers M. 1997. Civic ideals: Conflicting visions of citizenship in US history. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Rogers M. 2003. Stories of peoplehood: The politics and morals of political membership. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sunstein, Cass R. 2018. # Republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Swami, Viren. 2012. “Social psychological origins of conspiracy theories: The case of the Jewish conspiracy theory in Malaysia.Frontiers in Psychology 3:280. URL: www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00280Google Scholar
Taber, Charles S., and Lodge, Milton. 2006. “Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs.American Journal of Political Science 50(3):755769. URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540–5907.2006.00214.xGoogle Scholar
Tate, Katherine. 1994. From protest to politics: The new black voters in American elections. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, Robert Joseph, Miller, Reuben, Mouzon, Dawne, Keith, Verna M. and Chatters, Linda M.. 2018. “Everyday discrimination among African American men: The impact of criminal justice contact.Race and justice 8(2):154177.Google Scholar
Tesler, Michael. 2012. “The spillover of racialization into health care: How President Obama polarized public opinion by racial attitudes and race.American Journal of Political Science 56(3):690704. URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540–5907.2011.00577.xGoogle Scholar
Tesler, Michael. 2016. Post-racial or most-racial?: Race and politics in the Obama Era. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Tesler, Michael and Sears, David. 2010. Obama’s Race: The 2008 election and the dream of a post-racial America. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Thomas, Susan L. 1998. “Race, gender, and welfare reform: The antinatalist response.Journal of Black Studies 28(4):419446.Google Scholar
Thornbury, Scott and Slade, Diana. 2006. Conversation: From description to pedagogy. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Thorson, Emily. 2016. “Belief echoes: The persistent effects of corrected misinformation.Political Communication 33(3):460480. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2015.1102187Google Scholar
Tyree, Tia. 2011. “African American stereotypes in reality television.Howard Journal of Communications 22(4):394413.Google Scholar
Valentino, Nicholas A., Brader, Ted and Jardina, Ashley E.. 2013 a. “Immigration opposition among U.S. Whites: General ethnocentrism or media priming of attitudes about Latinos?” Political Psychology 34(2):149166. URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00928.xGoogle Scholar
Valentino, Nicholas A., Brader, Ted and Jardina, Ashley E.. 2013 b. “Immigration opposition among US Whites: General ethnocentrism or media priming of attitudes about Latinos?Political Psychology 34(2):149166.Google Scholar
Walker, Hannah, Roman, Marcel and Barreto, Matt. 2020. “The ripple effect: The political consequences of proximal contact with immigration enforcement.Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 5(3):537572.Google Scholar
Wallace, Sophia Jordán and Zepeda-Millán, Chris. 2020. Walls, cages, and family separation: Race and immigration policy in the Trump era. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Waters, Mary C., Kasinitz, Philip and Asad, Asad L.. 2014. “Immigrants and African Americans.Annual Review of Sociology 40: 369390.Google Scholar
Weaver, Vesla M., and Lerman, Amy E.. 2010. “Political consequences of the carceral state.American Political Science Review pp. 817833.Google Scholar
Wetts, Rachel and Willer, Robb. 2018. “Privilege on the precipice: Perceived racial status threats lead White Americans to oppose welfare programs.Social Forces 97(2):793822.Google Scholar
Williamson, Scott. 2019. “Countering misperceptions to reduce prejudice: An experiment on attitudes toward Muslim Americans.Journal of Experimental Political Science pp. 112.Google Scholar
Wilson, David C., Owens, Michael Leo and Davis, Darren W.. 2015. “How racial attitudes and ideology affect political rights for felons.Du Bois Review 12(1):73.Google Scholar
Wood, Thomas and Porter, Ethan. 2019. “The elusive backfire effect: Mass attitudes’ steadfast factual adherence.Political Behavior 41(1):135163.Google Scholar
Yazdiha, Haj. 2014. “Law as movement strategy: How the Islamophobia movement institutionalizes fear through legislation.Social Movement Studies 13(2):267274.Google Scholar
Young, Iris Marion. 1990. Justice and the politics of difference. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

(Mis)Informed: What Americans Know About Social Groups and Why it Matters for Politics
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

(Mis)Informed: What Americans Know About Social Groups and Why it Matters for Politics
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

(Mis)Informed: What Americans Know About Social Groups and Why it Matters for Politics
Available formats
×