Element contents
Digital Globalization
Politics, Policy, and a Governance Paradox
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 04 May 2023
Summary
Digital technologies are reshaping the global economy and complicating cooperation over its governance. Innovations in technology and business propel a new, digitally-driven phase of globalization defined by the expansion of cross-border information flows that is provoking political conflict and policy discord. This Element argues that the activities of digital value chains (DVCs), the central economic actors in digital globalization, complicate international economic relations. DVC activities can erode individual privacy, shift tax burdens, and cement monopoly positions. These outcomes generate a new politics of globalization, and governments are responding with increasing restrictions on cross-border data flows. This monograph: 1) explains the new sources of political division stemming from digital globalization; 2) documents policy barriers to digital trade; 3) presents a framework to explain digital trade barriers across countries; and 4) assesses the prospects for international cooperation on digital governance, which requires countries move beyond coordinated liberalization and toward coordinated regulation.
Keywords
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781108974158Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 01 June 2023
References
Aaronson, S. A. (2021). The Difficult Past and Troubled Future of Digital Protectionism. In Borchert, I. and Winters, L. A., editors, Addressing Impediments to Digital Trade, 141–168. CEPR Press.Google Scholar
Aaronson, S. A. and Leblond, P. (2018). Another Digital Divide: The Rise of Data Realms and its Implications for the WTO. Journal of International Economic Law, 21(2):245–272.Google Scholar
Acemoglu, D. and Restrepo, P. (2019). Automation and New Tasks: How Technology Displaces and Reinstates Labor. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33(2):3–30.Google Scholar
Agrawal, A., Gans, J., and Goldfarb, A. (2018a). Economic Policy for Artificial Intelligence. Innovation Policy and the Economy, 19:139–159.Google Scholar
Agrawal, A., Gans, J., and Goldfarb, A. (2018b). Prediction Machines: The Simple Economics of Artificial Intelligence. Harvard Business Press.Google Scholar
Agrawal, A., Gans, J. S., and Goldfarb, A. (2019). Artificial Intelligence: The Ambiguous Labor Market Impact of Automating Prediction. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33(2):31–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahlquist, J., Copelovitch, M., and Walter, S. (2020). The Political Consequences of External Economic Shocks: Evidence from Poland. American Journal of Political Science, 64(4):904–920.Google Scholar
Ahmed, U. (2019). The Importance of Cross-border Regulatory Cooperation in an Era of Digital Trade. World Trade Review, 18(S1):S99–S120.Google Scholar
Andersen, R. (2020). The Panopticon is Already Here. The Atlantic. www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/09/china-ai-surveillance/614197/.Google Scholar
Ansolabehere, S., De Figueiredo, J. M., and Snyder Jr., J. M. (2003). Why is There so Little Money in US Politics? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 17(1):105–130.Google Scholar
Arrow, K. J. (1962). Economic Welfare and the Allocation of Resource for Inventions, In Nelson, R. R., editor, The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity: Economic and Social Factors. 609–626. Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aslam, A. and Shah, A. (2021). Taxing the Digital Economy. In Mooij, R. De, Klemm, A., and Perry, V., editors, Corporate Income Taxes under Pressure. Why Reform Is Needed and How It Could Be Designed, 189–226. International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
Avila Pinto, R. (2018). Digital Sovereignty or Digital Colonialism: The Sur File on Internet and Democracy. Sur - International Journal on Human Rights, 27:15–28.Google Scholar
Azmeh, S., Foster, C., and Echavarri, J. (2020). The International Trade Regime and the Quest for Free Digital Trade. International Studies Review, 22(3):671–692.Google Scholar
Bacchus, J. (2022). Trade Links: New Rules for a New World. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Baccini, L. and Dür, A. (2012). The New Regionalism and Policy Interdependence. British Journal of Political Science, 42(1):57–79.Google Scholar
Baccini, L., Osgood, I., and Weymouth, S. (2019). The Service Economy: US Trade Coalitions in an Era of Deindustrialization. The Review of International Organizations, 14(2):261–296.Google Scholar
Baccini, L., Pinto, P. M., and Weymouth, S. (2017). The Distributional Consequences of Preferential Trade Liberalization: Firm-level Evidence. International Organization, 71(2):373–395.Google Scholar
Baccini, L. and Weymouth, S. (2021). Gone for Good: Deindustrialization, White Voter Backlash, and US Presidential Voting. American Political Science Review, 115(2):550–567.Google Scholar
Bailey, M. A., Goldstein, J., and Weingast, B. R. (1997). The Institutional Roots of American Trade Policy: Politics, Coalitions, and International Trade. World Politics, 49(3):309–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, A. (2005). Who Wants to Globalize? Consumer Tastes and Labor Markets in a Theory of Trade Policy Beliefs. American Journal of Political Science, 49(4):924–938.Google Scholar
Baldwin, R. (2019). The Globotics Upheaval: Globalization, Robotics, and the Future of Work, Oxford University PressGoogle Scholar
Ballard-Rosa, C., Malik, M. A., Rickard, S. J., and Scheve, K. (2021). The Economic Origins of Authoritarian Values: Evidence from Local Trade Shocks in the United Kingdom. Comparative Political Studies, 54(13):2321–2353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bank, M., Duffy, F., Leyendecker, V., and Silva, M. (2021). The Lobby Network - Big Tech’s Web of Influence in the EU.Corporate Europe Observatory.Google Scholar
Bennett, C. J. (2011). Privacy Advocacy from the Inside and the Outside: Implications for the Politics of Personal Data Protection in Networked Societies. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 13(2):125–141.Google Scholar
Bernard, A. B. and Jensen, J. B. (1999). Exceptional Exporter Performance: Cause, Effect, or Both? Journal of International Economics, 47(1):1–25.Google Scholar
Bernard, A. B., Jensen, J. B., Redding, S. J., and Schott, P. K. (2007). Firms in International Trade. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21(3):105–130.Google Scholar
Betz, T., Fortunato, D., and O’Brien, D. Z. (2023). Do Women Make More Protectionist Trade Policy? American Political Science Review.Google Scholar
Blinder, A. S. and Krueger, A. B. (2013). Alternative Measures of Offshorability: A Survey Approach. Journal of Labor Economics, 31(S1):S97–S128.Google Scholar
Borchert, I. and Winters, L. A. (2021). Addressing Impediments to Digital Trade. CEPR Press.Google Scholar
Bowen, T. R. and Broz, J. L. (2021). The Domestic Political-Economy of the WTO Crisis: Lessons for Preserving Multilateralism. Global Perspectives, 3(1): 1–20.Google Scholar
Branstetter, L. G., Glennon, B., and Jensen, J. B. (2019). The IT Revolution and the Globalization of R&D. Innovation Policy and the Economy, 19(1):1–37.Google Scholar
Broz, J. L., Frieden, J., and Weymouth, S. (2021). Populism in Place: The Economic Geography of the Globalization Backlash. International Organization, 75(2):464–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brutger, R. and Guisinger, A. (2022). Labor Market Volatility, Gender, and Trade Preferences. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 9(2):189–202.Google Scholar
Brynjolfsson, E., Collis, A., and Eggers, F. (2019). Using Massive Online Choice Experiments to Measure Changes in Well-Being. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15):7250–7255.Google Scholar
Brynjolfsson, E. and McAfee, A. (2014). The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies. WW Norton.Google Scholar
Burman, A. and Sharma, U. (2021). How Would Data Localization Benefit India? Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar
Burri, M. and Polanco, R. (2020). Digital Trade Provisions in Preferential Trade Agreements: Introducing a New Dataset. Journal of International Economic Law, 23(1):187–220.Google Scholar
Callander, S., Foarță, O. D., and Sugaya, T. (2021). Market Competition and Political Influence: An Integrated Approach. Centre for Economic Policy Research.Google Scholar
Casalini, F. and González, J. L. (2019). Trade and Cross-Border Data Flows. OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 220. OECD Publishing.Google Scholar
Casalini, F., González, J. L., and Nemoto, T. (2021). Mapping Commonalities in Regulatory Approaches to Cross-Border Data Transfers. OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 248, OECD Publishing.Google Scholar
Chander, A. (2013). The Electronic Silk Road: How the Web Binds the World Together in Commerce. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Chander, A. (2019). The Internet of Things: Both Goods and Services. World Trade Review, 18(S1):S9–S22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chander, A. and Schwartz, P. M. (2022). Privacy and/or Trade. SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 4038531, Social Science Research Network.Google Scholar
Chander, A. and Sun, H. (2021). Sovereignty 2.0. SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3904949, Social Science Research Network.Google Scholar
Chaudoin, S. and Mangini, M.-D. (2022). Robots, Foreigners, and Foreign Robots: Policy Responses to Automation and Trade. www.stephenchaudoin.com/chaudoin_mangini_automation.pdf.Google Scholar
Chazan, G. (2019). Angela Merkel urges EU to seize control of data from US tech titans. Financial Times. www.ft.com/content/956ccaa6-0537-11ea-9afa-d9e2401fa7ca.Google Scholar
Chen, C., Frey, C. B., and Presidente, G. (2022). Privacy Regulation and Firm Performance: Estimating the GDPR Effect Globally. No. 2022-1. The Oxford Martin Working Paper Series on Technological and Economic Change.Google Scholar
Chen, R. (2021). Mapping Data Governance Legal Frameworks Around the World: Findings from the Global Data Regulation Diagnostic. Policy Research Working Paper, No. 9615. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35410.Google Scholar
Cheng, L., Liu, F., ad Yao, D. D. (2017). Enterprise Data Breach: Causes, Challenges, Prevention, and Future Directions. WIREs Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 7(5):e1211.Google Scholar
Colantone, I. and Stanig, P. (2018a). Global Competition and Brexit. American Political Science Review, 112(2):201–218.Google Scholar
Colantone, I. and Stanig, P. (2018b). The Trade Origins of Economic Nationalism: Import Competition and Voting Behavior in Western Europe. American Journal of Political Science, 62(4):936–953.Google Scholar
Commission, I. T. (2017). Global Digital Trade 1: Market Opportunities and Key Foreign Trade Restrictions. The U.S. International Trade Commission. www.usitc.gov/publications/industry_econ_analysis_332/2017/global_digital_trade_1_market_opportunities_and.htm.Google Scholar
Cory, N. and Dascoli, L. (2021). How Barriers to Cross-Border Data Flows Are Spreading Globally, What They Cost, and How to Address Them. Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. https://itif.org/publications/2021/07/19/how-barriers-cross-border-data-flows-are-spreading-globally-what-they-cost/.Google Scholar
Cowhey, P. F. and Aronson, J. D. (2017). Digital DNA: Disruption and the Challenges for Global Governance. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Culpepper, P. D. and Thelen, K. (2020). Are We All Amazon Primed? Consumers and the Politics of Platform Power. Comparative Political Studies, 53(2):288–318.Google Scholar
David, H. (2015). Why are there Still so Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 29(3):3–30.Google Scholar
Davis, C. L. (2004). International Institutions and Issue Linkage: Building Support for Agricultural Trade Liberalization. American Political Science Review, 98(1):153–169.Google Scholar
Davis, C. L. (2009). Overlapping Institutions in Trade Policy. Perspectives on Politics, 7(1):25–31.Google Scholar
Deardorff, A. (2017). Comparative Advantage in Digital Trade. In Evernett, S., editor, Cloth for Wine? The Relevance of Ricardo’s Comparative Advantage in the 21st Century, 35–44. CEPR Press.Google Scholar
DeBrusk, C. (2018). The Risk of Machine-Learning Bias (and How to Prevent It). MIT Sloan Management Review. https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/the-risk-of-machine-learning-bias-and-how-to-prevent-it/.Google Scholar
Deibert, R. and Rohozinski, R. (2010). Liberation vs. Control: The Future of Cyberspace. Journal of Democracy, 21(4):43–57.Google Scholar
Disdier, A.-C. and Head, K. (2008). The Puzzling Persistence of the Distance Effect on Bilateral Trade. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(1):37–48.Google Scholar
Djankov (2021). How Do Companies Avoid Paying International Taxes? PIIE. www.piie.com/sites/default/files/documents/djankov-international-tax-2021-09.pdf.Google Scholar
Dobbie, W., Liberman, A., Paravisini, D., and Pathania, V. (2018). Measuring Bias in Consumer Lending. Technical Report w24953, National Bureau of Economic Research.Google Scholar
Dorn, D., Hanson, G., and Majlesi, K. (2020). Importing Political Polarization? The Electoral Consequences of Rising Trade Exposure. American Economic Review, 110(10):3139–3183.Google Scholar
Dorn, D., Katz, L. F., Patterson, C., and Van Reenen, J. (2017). Concentrating on the Fall of the Labor Share. American Economic Review, 107(5):180–185.Google Scholar
Dowd, R. (2022). Exporting the Digital Human Rights Norm. In Dowd, R., editor, The Birth of Digital Human Rights: Digitized Data Governance as a Human Rights Issue in the EU, Information Technology and Global Governance, pages 227–248. Springer.Google Scholar
Dragu, T. and Lupu, Y. (2021). Digital Authoritarianism and the Future of Human Rights. International Organization, 75(4):991–1017.Google Scholar
Eden, L., Srinivasan, N., and Lalapet, S. (2019). Transfer Pricing Challenges in the Digital Economy - Part 1: Hic Sunt Dracones? SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3412546, Social Science Research Network.Google Scholar
Erie, M. S. and Streinz, T. (2021). The Beijing Effect: China’s Digital Silk Road as Transnational Data Governance. New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, 54(1):1–92.Google Scholar
Fang, S. and Owen, E. (2011). International Institutions and Credible Commitment of Non-Democracies. The Review of International Organizations, 6(2):141–162.Google Scholar
Farrell, H. (2003). Constructing the International Foundations of E-Commerce—The EU-U.S. Safe Harbor Arrangement. International Organization, 57(2):277–306.Google Scholar
Farrell, H. and Newman, A. L. (2019a). Of Privacy and Power. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Farrell, H. and Newman, A. L. (2019b). Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion. International Security, 44(1):42–79.Google Scholar
Ferencz, J. (2019). The OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index. OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 221, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/16ed2d78-en.Google Scholar
Ferracane, M. F. (2017). Restrictions on Cross-Border Data Flows: A Taxonomy. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://ecipe.org/publications/restrictions-to-cross-border-data-flows-a-taxonomy/.Google Scholar
Ferracane, M. F., Lee-Makiyama, H., and Van Der Marel, E. (2018). Digital Trade Restrictiveness Index. European Center for International Political Economy.Google Scholar
Ferracane, M. F. and van der Marel, E. (2021). Regulating Personal Data: Data Models and Digital Services Trade. Policy Research Working Papers. The World Bank.Google Scholar
Finnemore, M. and Sikkink, K. (1998). International Norm Dynamics and Political Change. International Organization, 52(4):887–917.Google Scholar
Frey, C. B., Berger, T., and Chen, C. (2018). Political Machinery: Did Robots Swing the 2016 US Presidential Election? Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 34(3):418–442.Google Scholar
Frey, C. B. and Osborne, M. A. (2017). The Future of Employment: How Susceptible are Jobs to Computerisation? Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 114:254–280.Google Scholar
Frieden, J. A. and Rogowski, R. (1996). The Impact of the International Economy on National Policies: An Analytical Overview. Internationalization and Domestic Politics, 15:25–47.Google Scholar
Frier, S. (2018). Is Apple Really Your Privacy Hero? Bloomberg. August 8 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-08/is-apple-really-your-privacy-hero.Google Scholar
Furman, J., Coyle, D., Fletcher, A., McAuley, D., and Marsden, P. (2019). Unlocking Digital Competition: Report of the Digital Competition Expert Panel. UK Government Publication, HM Treasury.Google Scholar
Furman, J. and Orszag, P. (2018). A Firm-Level Perspective on the Role of Rents in the Rise in Inequality. In Guzman, Martin, editor, Toward a Just Society, 19–47. Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Gallego, A., Kuo, A., Manzano, D., and Fernández-Albertos, J. (2021). Technological Risk and Policy Preferences. Comparative Political Studies, 55(1): 60–92.Google Scholar
Gallego, A. and Kurer, T. (2022). Automation, Digitalization, and Artificial Intelligence in the Workplace: Implications for Political Behavior. Annual Review of Political Science, 25(1):null.Google Scholar
Gao, H. (2018). Digital or Trade? The Contrasting Approaches of China and US to Digital Trade. Journal of International Economic Law, 21(2):297–321.Google Scholar
Gereffi, G. and Fernandez-Stark, K. (2011). Global Value Chain Analysis: A Primer. Center on Globalization, Governance & Competitiveness (CGGC), Duke University.Google Scholar
Gidron, N. and Hall, P. A. (2017). The Politics of Social Status: Economic and Cultural Roots of the Populist Right. The British Journal of Sociology, 68: 57–84.Google Scholar
Gilardi, F. (2022). Digital Technology, Politics, and Policy-Making. Elements in Public Policy. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gingrich, J. (2019). Did State Responses to Automation Matter for Voters? Research & Politics, 6(1): 1–9.Google Scholar
Girard, T. (2022). National Identity, Public Opinion, and the Limits of Platform Power. Paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Meeting.Google Scholar
Gohdes, A. R. (2014). Repression in the digital age: Communication technology and the politics of state violence. Doctoral dissertation, University of Mannheim. https://madoc.bib.uni-mannheim.de/37902.Google Scholar
Gohdes, A. R. (2020). Repression Technology: Internet Accessibility and State Violence. American Journal of Political Science, 64(3):488–503.Google Scholar
Goldfarb, A. and Tucker, C. (2019). Digital Economics. Journal of Economic Literature, 57(1):3–43.Google Scholar
Goldstein, J. L., Rivers, D., and Tomz, M. (2007). Institutions in International Relations: Understanding the Effects of the GATT and the WTO on World Trade. International Organization, 61(1):37–67.Google Scholar
Grossman, G. M. and Helpman, E. (1994). Protection for Sale. The American Economic Review, 84(4):833–850.Google Scholar
Grossman, G. M. and Rossi-Hansberg, E. (2008). Trading Tasks: A Simple Theory of Offshoring. American Economic Review, 98(5):1978–1997.Google Scholar
Guisinger, A. (2017). American Opinion on Trade: Preferences without Politics. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gulotty, R. (2020). Narrowing the Channel: The Politics of Regulatory Protection in International Trade. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hai, Z. (2019). Automation and the Salience of Protectionism. Technical report, Working Paper. www.internationalpoliticaleconomysociety.org/sites/default/files/paper-uploads/[email protected].Google Scholar
Hainmueller, J. and Hiscox, M. J. (2006). Learning to Love Globalization: Education and Individual Attitudes Toward International Trade. International Organization, 60(2):469–498.Google Scholar
Hall, P. A. and Soskice, D. (2001). Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Sources of Comparative Advantage. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Handley, K. and Limão, N. (2015). Trade and Investment under Policy Uncertainty: Theory and Firm Evidence. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 7(4):189–222.Google Scholar
Handley, K. and Limão, N. (2017). Policy Uncertainty, Trade, and Welfare: Theory and Evidence for China and the United States. American Economic Review, 107(9):2731–2783.Google Scholar
Haskel, J. and Westlake, S. (2018). Capitalism without Capital: The Rise of Intangible Economy. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hiscox, M. J. (2001). Class Versus Industry Cleavages: Inter-Industry Factor Mobility and the Politics of Trade. International Organization, 55(1):1–46.Google Scholar
Hodson, S. (2019). Applying WTO and FTA Disciplines to Data Localization Measures. World Trade Review, 18(4):579–607.Google Scholar
Hummels, D., Ishii, J., and Yi, K.-M. (2001). The Nature and Growth of Vertical Specialization in World Trade. Journal of International Economics, 54(1):75–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hummels, D. L. and Schaur, G. (2013). Time as a Trade Barrier. American Economic Review, 103(7):2935–2959.Google Scholar
Iansiti, M. and Lakhani, K. R. (2020). Competing in the Age of AI: Strategy and Leadership When Algorithms and Networks Run the World. Harvard Business Press.Google Scholar
Im, Z. J., Mayer, N., Palier, B., and Rovny, J. (2019). The Losers of Automation: A Reservoir of Votes for the Radical Right? Research & Politics, 6(1): 1–7.Google Scholar
Iversen, T. and Soskice, D. (2019). Democracy and Prosperity. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Jensen, J. B. (2011). Global Trade in Services: Fear, Facts, and Offshoring. Peterson Institute for International Economics.Google Scholar
Jensen, J. B., Quinn, D. P., and Weymouth, S. (2015). The Influence of Firm Global Supply Chains and Foreign Currency Undervaluations on US Trade Disputes. International Organization, 69(4): 913–947.Google Scholar
Jensen, J. B., Quinn, D. P., and Weymouth, S. (2017). Winners and Losers in International Trade: The Effects on US Presidential Voting. International Organization, 71(3):423–457.Google Scholar
Keck, M. E. and Sikkink, K. (2014). Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Khan, L. (2018). The New Brandeis Movement: America’s Antimonopoly Debate. Journal of European Competition Law & Practice, 9(3):131–132.Google Scholar
Kilic, B. and Avila, R. (2020). Cross Border Data Flows, Privacy, and Global Inequality. Public citizen. www.citizen.org/wp-content/uploads/crossborder-data-flows-privacy.pdf.Google Scholar
Kim, I. S. (2017). Political Cleavages within Industry: Firm-level Lobbying for Trade Liberalization. The American Political Science Review, 111(1):1.Google Scholar
Kim, I. S. and Milner, H. V. (2019). Multinational Corporations and their Influence Through Lobbying on Foreign Policy. In Wessel, David, Hines, James, and Foley, C. Fritz editors, Global Goliaths: Multinational Corporations in the 21st Century Economy. Brookings Institution 497–536.Google Scholar
Kim, I. S. and Osgood, I. (2019). Firms in Trade and Trade Politics. Annual Review of Political Science, 22: 399–417.Google Scholar
King, G., Pan, J., and Roberts, M. E. (2013). How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression. American Political Science Review, 107(2):326–343.Google Scholar
Korinek, A. and Stiglitz, J. E. (2019). 14. Artificial Intelligence and Its Implications for Income Distribution and Unemployment. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Koutroumpis, P., Leiponen, A., and Thomas, L. D. W. (2020). Markets for Data. Industrial and Corporate Change, 29(3):645–660.Google Scholar
Kröger, J. L., Miceli, M., and Müller, F. (2021). How Data Can Be Used Against People: A Classification of Personal Data Misuses. SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3887097, Social Science Research Network.Google Scholar
Kurer, T. (2020). The Declining Middle: Occupational Change, Social Status, and the Populist Right. Comparative Political Studies, 53(10–11):1798–1835.Google Scholar
Kwet, M. (2019). Digital Colonialism: US Empire and the New Imperialism in the Global South. Race & Class, 60(4):3–26.Google Scholar
Lambrecht, A. and Tucker, C. (2019). Algorithmic Bias? An Empirical Study of Apparent Gender-based Discrimination in the Display of Stem Career Ads. Management Science, 65(7):2966–2981.Google Scholar
Lancieri, F. and Sakowski, P. M. (2021). Competition in Digital Markets: A Review of Expert Reports. Stanford Journal of Law, Business and Finance, 26:65.Google Scholar
Lehoucq, E. and Tarrow, S. (2020). The Rise of a Transnational Movement to Protect Privacy. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 25(2):161–184.Google Scholar
Li, W. C. Y., Makoto, N., and Kazufumi, Y. (2019). Value of Data: There’s No Such Thing as a Free Lunch in the Digital Economy. REITIGoogle Scholar
Liu, L. (2021). The Rise of Data Politics: Digital China and the World. Studies in Comparative International Development, 56(1):45–67.Google Scholar
Liu, L. (2022). From Click to Boom: The Political Economy of E-Commerce in China. Unpublished.Google Scholar
Lü, X., Scheve, K., and Slaughter, M. J. (2012). Inequity Aversion and the International Distribution of Trade Protection. American Journal of Political Science, 56(3):638–654.Google Scholar
Macher, J. T. and Mayo, J. W. (2015). Influencing Public Policymaking: Firm-, industry-, and Country-level Determinants. Strategic Management Journal, 36(13):2021–2038.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, R. (2012). Consent of the Networked: The Worldwide Struggle for Internet Freedom. Politique étrangère, 50(2):432–463.Google Scholar
Malhotra, N., Monin, B., and Tomz, M. (2019). Does Private Regulation Preempt Public Regulation? American Political Science Review, 113(1):19–37.Google Scholar
Mansfield, E. D., Milner, H. V., and Rudra, N. (2021). The Globalization Backlash: Exploring New Perspectives. Comparative Political Studies, 54(13):2267–2285.Google Scholar
Mansfield, E. D. and Mutz, D. C. (2009). Support for Free Trade: Self-Interest, Sociotropic Politics, and Out-Group Anxiety. International Organization, 63(3):425–457.Google Scholar
Mansfield, E. D. and Rudra, N. (2021). Embedded Liberalism in the Digital Era. International Organization, 75(2):558–585.Google Scholar
Manyika, J., Lund, S., Bughin, J. et al. (2016). Digital Globalization: The New Era of Global Flows. McKinsey Global Institute.Google Scholar
Mattoo, A. and Meltzer, J. P. (2018). International Data Flows and Privacy: The Conflict and Its Resolution. Journal of International Economic Law, 21(4):769–789.Google Scholar
Mayda, A. M. and Rodrik, D. (2005). Why are Some People (and Countries) More Protectionist than Others? European Economic Review, 49(6):1393–1430.Google Scholar
McAfee, A. and Brynjolfsson, E. (2017). Machine, Platform, Crowd: Harnessing Our Digital Future. WW Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Mele, C., Russo Spena, T., Kaartemo, V., and Marzullo, M. L. (2021). Smart Nudging: How Cognitive Technologies Enable Choice Architectures for Value Co-creation. Journal of Business Research.Google Scholar
Melitz, M. J. (2003). The Impact of Trade on Intra-industry Reallocations and Aggregate Industry Productivity. Econometrica, 71(6):1695–1725.Google Scholar
Milner, H. (1988). Trading Places: Industries for Free Trade. World Politics, 40(3):350–376.Google Scholar
Milner, H. V. (2021). Voting for Populism in Europe: Globalization, Technological Change, and the Extreme Right. Comparative Political Studies, 54(13):2286–2320.Google Scholar
Milner, H. V. and Kubota, K. (2005). Why the Move to Free Trade? Democracy and Trade Policy in the Developing Countries. International Organization, 59(1):107–143.Google Scholar
Moore, M. and Tambini, D. (2018). Digital Dominance: The Power of Google, Amazon, Facebook, and Apple. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mutz, D. C. (2021). Winners and Losers: The Psychology of Foreign Trade, volume 27. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mutz, D. C. and Kim, E. (2017). The Impact of In-group Favoritism on Trade Preferences. International Organization, 71(4):827–850.Google Scholar
Mutz, D. C. and Lee, A. H.-Y. (2020). How Much is One American Worth? How Competition Affects Trade Preferences. American Political Science Review, 114(4):1179–1194.Google Scholar
Nemoto, T. and Lopez Gonzalez, J. (2021). Digital Trade Inventory: Rules, Standards and Principles, OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 251, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9a9821e0-en.Google Scholar
Newman, A. L. (2008a). Building Transnational Civil Liberties: Transgovernmental Entrepreneurs and the European Data Privacy Directive. International Organization, 62(1):103–130.Google Scholar
Nguyen, D. and Paczos, M. (2020). Measuring the Economic Value of Data and Cross-Border Data Flows: A Business Perspective, OECD Digital Economy Papers, No. 297, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/6345995e-en.Google Scholar
OECD (2018). Tax Challenges Arising from Digitalisation – Interim Report 2018: Inclusive Framework on BEPS. OECD/G20 Base Erosion and Profit Shifting Project. OECD.Google Scholar
OECD (2019). An Introduction to Online Platforms and Their Role in the Digital Transformation. OECD.Google Scholar
Osgood, I. (2018). Globalizing the Supply Chain: Firm and Industrial Support for US Trade Agreements. International Organization, 72(2):455–484.Google Scholar
Osgood, I. (2021). Vanguards of Globalization: Organization and Political Action among America’s Pro-trade Firms. Business and Politics, 23(1):1–35.Google Scholar
Osgood, I., Tingley, D., Bernauer, T. et al. (2017). The Charmed Life of Superstar Exporters: Survey Evidence on Firms and Trade Policy. The Journal of Politics, 79(1):133–152.Google Scholar
Owen, E. (2017). Exposure to Offshoring and the Politics of Trade Liberalization: Debate and Votes on Free Trade Agreements in the US House of Representatives, 2001–2006. International Studies Quarterly, 61(2):297–311.Google Scholar
Owen, E. and Walter, S. (2017). Open Economy Politics and Brexit: Insights, Puzzles, and Ways Forward. Review of International Political Economy, 24(2):179–202.Google Scholar
Peltzman, S. (1976). Toward a More General Theory of Regulation. The Journal of Law and Economics, 19(2):211–240.Google Scholar
Porter, M. E. (1985). Technology and Competitive Advantage. Journal of Business Strategy. 5(3):60–78.Google Scholar
Price, R. (1998). Reversing the Gun Sights: Transnational Civil Society Targets Land Mines. International Organization, 52(3):613–644.Google Scholar
Price, R. (2003). Transnational Civil Society and Advocacy in World Politics. World Politics, 55(4):579–606.Google Scholar
Raghavan, M., Barocas, S., Kleinberg, J., and Levy, K. (2020). Mitigating bias in algorithmic hiring: Evaluating claims and practices. In Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, pages 469–481.Google Scholar
Rho, S. and Tomz, M. (2017). Why don’t trade preferences reflect economic self-interest? International Organization, 71(S1):S85–S108.Google Scholar
Richter, B. K., Samphantharak, K., and Timmons, J. F. (2009). Lobbying and taxes. American Journal of Political Science, 53(4):893–909.Google Scholar
Rickard, S. J. (2021). Incumbents Beware: The Impact of Offshoring on Elections. British Journal of Political Science, 52(2):758–780.Google Scholar
Risse, T., Risse-Kappen, T., Ropp, S. C., and Sikkink, K. (1999). The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Risse, T. and Sikkink, K. (1999). The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practices: Introduction. In Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen C. and Sikkink, Kathryn, (eds.), International Norms and Domestic Change, Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–38.Google Scholar
Roberts, M. E. (2018). Censored: Distraction and Diversion inside China’s Great Firewall. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Rodrik, D. (2011). The Globalization Paradox: Why Global Markets, States, and Democracy Can’t Coexist. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rogowski, R. (1987). Political Cleavages and Changing Exposure to Trade. American Political Science Review, 81(4): 1121–1137.Google Scholar
Rogowski, R. and Kayser, M. A. (2002). Majoritarian Electoral Systems and Consumer Power: Price-Level Evidence from the OECD Countries. American Journal of Political Science, 46(3):526–539.Google Scholar
Sandbu, M. (2019). More than Third of Foreign Investment is Multinationals Dodging Tax. Financial Times. www.ft.com/content/37aa9d06-d0c8-11e9-99a4-b5ded7a7fe3f.Google Scholar
Sarah, M. (2021). The role of online platforms in weathering the COVID-19 shock. OECD. www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/the-role-of-online-platforms-in-weathering-the-covid-19-shock-2a3b8434/.Google Scholar
Scheve, K. F. and Slaughter, M. J. (2001). What Determines Individual Trade-policy Preferences? Journal of International Economics, 54(2):267–292.Google Scholar
Scholz, L. (2018). Big Data is Not Big Oil: The Role of Analogy in the Law of New Technologies. SSRN Electronic Journal.Google Scholar
Schulze, P. and van der Marel, E. (2021). Taxing digital services - compensating for the loss of competitiveness. Research Report 11/2021, ECIPE Policy Brief.Google Scholar
Sen, N. (2018). Understanding the Role of the WTO in International Data Flows: Taking the Liberalization or the Regulatory Autonomy Path? Journal of International Economic Law, 21(2):323–348.Google Scholar
Shapiro, C., Varian, H. R., and Carl, S. (1999). Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy. Harvard Business Press.Google Scholar
Sinha, A. and Basu, A. (2019). The Politics of India’s Data Protection Ecosystem. Economic and Political Weekly, 54(49).Google Scholar
Slaughter, M. J. and McCormick, D. H. (2021). Data is Power: Washington Needs to Craft New Rules for the Digital Age. Foreign Affairs 100(3): 54.Google Scholar
Solove, D. J. (2021). The Myth of the Privacy Paradox. George Washington Law Review, 89:1.Google Scholar
Srivastava, S. (2021). Algorithmic Governance and the International Politics of Big Tech. Perspectives on Politics, 1–12.Google Scholar
Srivastava, S. (2022). Hybrid Sovereignty in World Politics. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stabell, C. B. and Fjeldstad, Ø. D. (1998). Configuring Value for Competitive Advantage: On Chains, Shops, and Networks. Strategic Management Journal, 19(5):413–437.Google Scholar
Stiglitz, J. (2019). People, Power, and Profits: Progressive Capitalism for an Age of Discontent. Penguin.Google Scholar
Stoller, M. (2019). Goliath: The 100-Year War Between Monopoly Power and Democracy. Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Subramanian, A. and Wei, S.-J. (2007). The WTO Promotes Trade, Strongly but Unevenly. Journal of International Economics, 72(1):151–175.Google Scholar
Susskind, J. (2022). The Digital Republic: On Freedom and Democracy in the 21st Century. Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Teachout, Z. and Khan, L. M. (2014). Market Structure and Political Law: A Taxonomy of Power. Duke Journal of Constitutional Law & Public Policy, 9:37.Google Scholar
Thewissen, S. and Rueda, D. (2019). Automation and the Welfare State: Technological Change as a Determinant of Redistribution Preferences. Comparative Political Studies, 52(2):171–208.Google Scholar
Tørsløv, T. R., Wier, L. S., and Zucman, G. (2018). The Missing Profits of Nations. Technical report, National Bureau of Economic Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UNCTAD (2019). Digital Economy Report 2019: Value Creation and Capture : Implications for Developing Countries. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.Google Scholar
UNCTAD (2021). Digital Economy Report 2021: Cross-Border Data Flows and Development : From Whom the Data Flow. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.Google Scholar
Walter, S. (2017). Globalization and the Demand-Side of Politics: How Globalization Shapes Labor Market Risk Perceptions and Policy Preferences*. Political Science Research and Methods, 5(1):55–80.Google Scholar
Walter, S. (2021). The Backlash Against Globalization. Annual Review of Political Science, 24(1):421–442.Google Scholar
Wasik, B. (2015). Welcome to the Age of Digital Imperialism. The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2015/06/07/magazine/welcome-to-the-age-of-digital-imperialism.html.Google Scholar
Weiss, J. C. (2019). A World Safe for Autocracy: China’s Rise and the Future of Global Politics Essays. Foreign Affairs, 98(4):92–108.Google Scholar
Weiss, J. C. and Wallace, J. L. (2021). Domestic Politics, China’s Rise, and the Future of the Liberal International Order. International Organization, 75(2):635–664.Google Scholar
Weymouth, S. (2012). Firm Lobbying and Influence in Developing Countries: A Multilevel Approach. Business and Politics, 14(4):1–26.Google Scholar
Weymouth, S. (2016). Competition Politics: Interest Groups, Democracy, and Antitrust Reform in Developing Countries. The Antitrust Bulletin, 61(2):296–316.Google Scholar
Weymouth, S. (2017). Service Firms in the Politics of US Trade Policy. International Studies Quarterly, 61(4):935–947.Google Scholar
Bank, World, editor (2021). World Development Report 2021: Data for Better Lives. World Development Report. World Bank.Google Scholar
Wu, M. (2016). The China, Inc. Challenge to Global trade governance. Harv. Int’l LJ, 57:261.Google Scholar
Wu, M. (2017). Digital Trade-Related Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements: Existing Models and Lessons for the Multilateral Trade System. RTA Exchange. International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) and the Inter-American Development Bank, Geneva, Switzerland. using blockchain to facilitate trade for sd, 269.Google Scholar
Wu, M. (2019). 11 China’s Rise and the Growing Doubts over Trade Multilateralism. In Crowley, Meredith A., editor, Trade War: The Clash of Economic Systems Threatening Global Prosperity, 101–110. CEPR Press.Google Scholar
Wu, N. (2021). Misattributed Blame? Attitudes toward Globalization in the Age of Automation. Political Science Research and Methods, 10(3): 1–18.Google Scholar
Wu, T. (2020). The Curse of Bigness: How Corporate Giants Came to Rule the World. Atlantic Books.Google Scholar
Young, A. (2022). Wrestling Referees?: The EU’s Place in Governing the Global Digital Economy. Working paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Meeting.Google Scholar
Zhang, D. and Kong, Q. (2021). How Does Energy Policy Affect Firms’ Outward Foreign Direct Investment: An Explanation Based on Investment Motivation and Firms’ Performance. Energy Policy, 158:112548.Google Scholar
Zingales, L. (2017). Towards a Political Theory of the Firm. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(3):113–130.Google Scholar
Zuboff, S. (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power. Profile Books.Google Scholar
Zucman, G. (2015). The Hidden Wealth of Nations: The Scourge of Tax Havens. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
- 14
- Cited by