Element contents
Contesting Social Welfare in Southeast Asia
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 June 2023
Summary
This Element argues that Southeast Asia's failure to develop stronger social protection systems has been, at its root, a matter of politics and power. It has reflected the political dominance within the region of predatory and technocratic elements, and the relative weakness of progressive elements. From the mid-1980s, democratisation, the emergence of political entrepreneurs seeking to mobilise mass electoral support, and the occurrence of severe economic and social crises generated pressure on governments within the region to strengthen their social protection systems. But while such developments shifted policy in a more progressive direction, they have been insufficient to produce far-reaching change. Rather, they have produced a layering effect. Innovations have built upon pre-existing policy and institutional arrangements without fundamentally altering these arrangements, ensuring that social protection systems continue to have strong conservative, productivist and predatory attributes.
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781108886642Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 06 July 2023
References
Abrahamson, Peter (2011) ‘The Welfare Modelling Business Revisited: The Case of East Asian Welfare Regimes’, in Hwang, Gyu-Jin (ed.), New Welfare States in East Asia: Global Challenges and Restructuring. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 15–34.Google Scholar
Albert, Rose Ramon, Abrigo, Michael Ralph, Quimba, Francis Mark and Vizmanos, Jana Flor (2020) Poverty, the Middle Class and Income Distribution amid COVID-19, Manila: Philippine Institute for Development Studies.Google Scholar
Anderson, Benedict (1988) ‘Cacique Democracy in the Philippines: Origins and Dreams’, New Left Review, 169: 3–31.Google Scholar
Anderson, Benedict (1990) ‘Murder and Progress in Modern Siam’, New Left Review, 181: 33–48.Google Scholar
Ansell, Ben (2010) From the Ballot to the Blackboard: The Redistributive Political Economy of Education, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Arts, Wil A. and Gelissen, John (2010) ‘Models of the Welfare State’, in Castles, Frank, Leibfried, Stephan, Lewis, Jane, Obinger, Herbert and Pierson, Christopher (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Welfare State, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 569–83.Google Scholar
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) (2013) ASEAN State of Education Report 2013, Jakarta: ASEAN.Google Scholar
Asher, Mukul (2009) ‘Provident and Pension Funds and Economic Development in Selected Asian Countries’, in Hujo, Katja and McClanahan, Shea (eds.), Financing Social Policy: Mobilizing Resources for Social Development, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 264–89.Google Scholar
Asher, Mukul and Bali, Azad Singh (2012) ‘Malaysia’, in Park, Donghyun (ed.), Pension Systems in East and Southeast Asia: Promoting Fairness and Sustainability, Manila: ADB, 53–65.Google Scholar
Asia-South Pacific Education Watch (2007) Philippines: Summary Report: Mapping Out Disadvantaged Groups in Education, Mumbai: ASPBAE.Google Scholar
Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2012) Asian Development Outlook 2012: Combatting Rising Inequality in Asia, Manila: ADB.Google Scholar
Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2016) The Social Protection Indicator: Assessing Results for Asia, Manila: ADB.Google Scholar
Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2019) The Social Protection Indicator for Asia: Assessing Progress, Manila: ADB.Google Scholar
Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2021) One Year of Living with Covid-19: An Assessment of How ADB Members Fought the Pandemic in 2020, Manila: ADB.Google Scholar
Aspinall, Edward (2014) ‘Health Care and Democratization in Indonesia’, Democratization, 21(5): 803–23.Google Scholar
Aspinall, Edward and Weiss, Meredith (2012) ‘Limits of Civil Society: Social Movements and Political Parties in Southeast Asia’, in Robison, Richard (ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Southeast Asian Politics, London: Routledge, 213–28.Google Scholar
Auethavornpipat, Ruji and Tanyag, Maria (2021) Protests and Pandemics: Civil Society Mobilisation in Thailand and the Philippines During Covid-19, Canberra: New Mandala, Australian National University.Google Scholar
Bah, Adama, Bazzi, Samuel, Sumarto, Sudarno and Tobias, Julia (2019) ‘Finding the Poor vs. Measuring their Poverty: Exploring the Drivers of Targeting Effectiveness in Indonesia’, The World Bank Economic Review, 33(3): 573–97.Google Scholar
Barraclough, Simon (2000) ‘The Politics of Privatisation of the Malaysian Health Care System’, Contemporary Southeast Asia, 22(2): 340–59.Google Scholar
Barrientos, Armando (2013) ‘Social Protection for Poverty Reduction: Approaches, Effectiveness and Challenges’, in Bender, Katja, Kaltenborn, Markus and Pfleiderer, Christian (eds.), Social Protection in Developing Countries: Reforming Systems, London: Routledge, 24–32.Google Scholar
Booth, Anne (2001) ‘Initial Conditions and Miraculous Growth: Why is Southeast Asia Different from Taiwan and South Korea?’ in Jomo, Kwame Sundaram (ed.), Southeast Asia’s Industrialisation: Industrial Policy, Capabilities and Sustainability, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 30–58.Google Scholar
Bridel, Anna and Lontoh, Lucky (2014) Lessons Learned: Malaysia’s 2013 Fuel Subsidy Reduction, Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development.Google Scholar
Cahyadi, Nur, Hanna, Rema, Olken, Benjamin A. et al. (2020) ‘Cumulative Impacts of Conditional Cash Transfer Program: Experimental Evidence from Indonesia’, American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 12(4): 88–110.Google Scholar
Capuno, Joseph J., Kraft, Aleli D. and O’Donnell, Owen (2021) ‘Filling Potholes on the Road to Universal Health Coverage in the Philippines’, Health Systems and Reform, 7(2): e1911473.Google Scholar
Charoensuthipan, Penchan (2021) ‘Old-Age Allowance Only for Poor Just a “Rumour”’, Bangkok Post, 22 September.Google Scholar
Cho, Yoonyoung, Avalos, Jorge, Kawasoe, Yasuhiro, Johnson, Doug and Rodriguez, Ruth (2020) Mitigating the Impact of COVID-19 on the Welfare of Low Income Households in the Philippines: The Role of Social Protection, https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/, accessed 26 January 2022.Google Scholar
Choong, Christopher and Firouz, Adam (2020) Social Protection and Fiscal Policy in Malaysia, Khazanah Research Institute Discussion Paper 9/20, Khazanah Research Institute.Google Scholar
Chuen, Roongkiat Ratanaban (2019) ‘The Pension System in Thailand’, Nomura Journal of Asian Capital Markets, 3(2): 34–9.Google Scholar
Civil Society Network for Education Reforms, Teachers and Employees Association for Change, Education Reforms and Solidarity, Maminturan Development Foundation, PUSAKA, USM-ACES Kabataan Kontra Kahirapan Philippine Human Rights Information Center; Asia South Pacific Association for Basic and Adult Education; and Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2016) Privatization, Commercialization and Low Government Financing in Education: Infringing on the Right to Education of Filipinos, an Alternative Report submitted to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, www.aspbae.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/HR-Parallel-Report-Privatization-Commercialization-and-Low-Government-Financing-in-Education-Philippines.pdf, accessed 7 April 2023.Google Scholar
Cook, Sarah and Pincus, Jonathan (2014) ‘Poverty, Inequality and Social Protection in Southeast Asia: An Introduction’, Journal of Southeast Asian Economies, 31(1): 1–17.Google Scholar
Cortes, Josefina (1980) ‘The Philippines’, in Postlethwaite, Neville T. and Thomas, Murray R. (eds.), Schooling in the ASEAN Region: Primary and Secondary Education in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 145–80.Google Scholar
Croissant, Aurel (2004) ‘Changing Welfare Regimes in East and Southeast Asia: Crisis, Change and Challenge’, Social Policy and Administration, 38(5): 504–24.Google Scholar
Croke, Kevin, Mohd Yusoff, Mariana Binti, Abdullah, Zalilah et al. (2019) ‘The Political Economy of Health Financing Reform in Malaysia’, Health Policy and Planning, 34: 732–9.Google Scholar
Dadap-Cantal, Emma Lynn, Andrew M. Fischer, and Charmaine, G. Ramos, (2021) ‘Targeting Versus Social Protection in Cash Transfers in the Philippines: Reassessing a Celebrated Case of Social Protection’, Critical Social Policy, 41(3): 364–83.Google Scholar
Di John, Jonathan and Putzel, James (2009) Political Settlements, Birmingham: GSDRC, University of Birmingham.Google Scholar
Editors (2021) ‘Juliari’s Ridiculous Sentence’, Jakarta Post, 25 August, www.thejakartapost.com/academia/2021/08/24/juliaris-ridiculous-verdict.html.Google Scholar
Esping-Andersen, Gosta (1990) The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Fineman, Mark (1987) ‘Literacy Declining: Philippines: New Crisis in Education’, LA Times, 21 November.Google Scholar
Gagne-Acoulon, Sandrine (2020) ‘Philippines offers $600 for Information on Corrupt Officials’, www.occrp.org/en/daily/12292, accessed 26 January 2022.Google Scholar
Gonzales, Eduardo and Manasan, Rosario (2002) ‘Social Protection in the Philippines’, in Erfried, Adam, Michael, von Huff and John, Marei (eds.), Social Protection in Southeast and East Asia, Singapore: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 180–229.Google Scholar
Gough, Ian (2001) ‘Globalization and Regional Welfare Regimes: The East Asian Case’, Global Social Policy, 1(23): 163–89.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephan (2008) ‘Democratization, Crisis and the Changing Social Contract in East Asia’, in Andrew MacIntyre, T. J. Pempel and Ravenhill, John (eds.), Crisis as Catalyst: Asia’s Dynamic Political Economy, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 93–116.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephan and Kaufman, Robert (2008) Development, Democracy, and Welfare States: Latin America, East Asia, and Eastern Europe, Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Handra, Hefrizal and Dita, Astrid (2016) ‘Pension System and its Fiscal Implications in Indonesia’, in Asher, Mukul and Zen, Fauziah (eds.), Age Related Pension Expenditure and Fiscal Space: Modelling Techniques and Case Studies from East Asia. Abingdon: Routledge, 104–36.Google Scholar
Hardjono, Joan, Akhmadi, Nuning and Sumarto, Sudarno (eds.) (2010) Poverty and Social Protection in Indonesia, Singapore: ISEAS.Google Scholar
Harson, Siktus (2020) ‘Covid-19 and the Ugly Truth about Indonesian Education’, 30 August, www.ucanews.com/news/, accessed 30 December 2021.Google Scholar
HelpAge International (2009) ‘Thai PM Guarantees Older People’s Right to Social Pension’, 15 April, http://globalag.igc.org/pension/world/social/Thai.htm, accessed 24 December 2021.Google Scholar
Hewison, Kevin (2010) ‘Thaksin Shinawatra and the Reshaping of Thai Politics’, Contemporary Politics, 16(2): 119–33.Google Scholar
Hewison, Kevin and Rodan, Garry (1994) ‘The Decline of the Left in Southeast Asia’, Socialist Register, 30: 235–62.Google Scholar
Hickey, Sam, Sen, Kunal and Bukenya, Badru (2015) ‘Exploring the Politics of Inclusive Development: Towards a New Conceptual Approach’, in Hickey, Sam, Sen, Kunal and Bukenya, Badru (eds.), The Politics of Inclusive Development: Interrogating the Evidence, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 3–35.Google Scholar
Holliday, Ian (2000) ‘Productivist Welfare Capitalism: Social Policy in East Asia’, Political Studies, 48(4): 706–23.Google Scholar
Holzman, Robert and Hinz, Richard (2005) Old-Age Income Support in the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Pension Systems and Reform, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Hwang, Gyu-Jin (2012) ‘Explaining Welfare State Adaptation in East Asia: The Cases of Japan, Korea, and Taiwan’, Asian Journal of Social Science, 40: 174–202.Google Scholar
International Labour Organization ( ILO) (2017) World Social Protection Report 2017–2019: Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, Geneva: ILO.Google Scholar
International Labour Organization ( ILO) (2020) ‘COVID-19: Impact on Migrant Workers and Country Response in Malaysia’, May, www.ilo.org/asia/publications/issue-briefs/WCMS_741512/lang--en/index.htm.Google Scholar
International Labour Organization ( ILO) (2021) World Social Protection Report 2020–2022: Social Protection at the Crossroads – in Pursuit of a Better Future, Geneva: ILO.Google Scholar
ILO-UN Women Collaboration (2015) Facts and Figures: Women Migrant Workers in ASEAN, Bangkok: ILO.Google Scholar
Jones, Catherine (1993) ‘The Pacific Challenge: Confucian Welfare States’, in Jones, Catherine (ed.), New Perspectives on the Welfare State in Europe, London: Routledge, 198–217.Google Scholar
Karshenas, Massoud, Moghadam, Valentine and Alami, Randa (2014) ‘Social Policy after the Arab Spring: States and Social Rights in the MENA Region’, World Development, 64: 726–39.Google Scholar
Khalid, Khadijah Md and Abidin, Mahani Zainal (2014) ‘Technocracy in Economic Policy-Making in Malaysia’, Southeast Asian Studies, 3(2): 383–413.Google Scholar
Khan, Mustaq (2010) ‘Political Settlements and the Governance of Growth-Enhancing Institutions’, SOAS eprints, https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/9968/1/, accessed 6 February 2022.Google Scholar
Khoo, Boo Teik (2012) ‘Development Strategies and Poverty Reduction’, in Teik, Khoo Boo (ed.), Policy Regimes and the Political Economy of Poverty Reduction in Malaysia, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 29–62.Google Scholar
Khoo, Boo Teik (2018) ‘Political Turbulence and Stalemate in Contemporary Malaysia: Oligarchic Reconstitutions and Insecurities’, TRaNS: Trans –Regional and –National Studies of Southeast Asia, 6(2): 227–51.Google Scholar
Khoo, Boo Teik and Tsunekawa, Keiichi (2017) ‘Southeast Asia: Beyond Crises and Traps’, in Khoo Boo Teik, Keiichi Tsunekawa, and Kawano, Motoko (eds.), Southeast Asia Beyond Crises and Traps: Economic Growth and Upgrading, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 1–32.Google Scholar
Kim, Eunju and Yoo, Jayoung (2015) ‘Conditional Cash Transfer in The Philippines: How to Overcome Institutional Constraints for Implementing Social Protection’, Asia and the Pacific Policy Studies, 2(1): 75–89.Google Scholar
Kim, Mason (2015) Comparative Welfare Capitalism in East Asia: Productivist Models of Social Policy, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kim, Sunhyuk (2015) ‘NGOs and Social Protection in East Asia: Korea, Thailand and Indonesia’, Asian Journal of Political Science, 23(1): 23–43.Google Scholar
Knox-Vydmanov, Charles and Khiewrord, Usa (2016) ‘Rationing the Old Age Allowance A Backwards Step’, Bangkok Post, 27 May, www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/990397/rationing-the-old-age-allowance-a-backwards-step.Google Scholar
Korpi, Walter (2006) ‘Power Resources and Employer-Centred Approaches in Explanation of Welfare State and Varieties of Capitalism: Protagonists, Consenters, and Antagonists’, World Politics, 58(2): 167–206.Google Scholar
Kuhonta, Erik (2017) ‘The Politics of Health Care Reform in Thailand’, in Ilcheaong, Yi (ed.), Towards Universal Health Care in Emerging Economies: Opportunities and Challenges, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 91–118.Google Scholar
Kwon, Huck-Ju and Kim, Woo-Rim (2015) ‘The Evolution of Cash Transfers in Indonesia: Policy Transfer and National Adaptation’, Asia and the Pacific Policy Studies, 2(2): 425–40.Google Scholar
Lane, Max (1990) The Urban Mass Movement in the Philippines, 1983–1987, Canberra and Singapore: ANU and ISEAS.Google Scholar
Lavers, Tom and Hickey, Sam (2016) ‘Conceptualising the Politics of Social Protection Expansion in Low Income Countries: The Intersection of Transnational Ideas and Domestic Politics’, International Journal of Social Welfare, 25: 388–98.Google Scholar
Lee, Molly (1997) ‘Education and the State: Malaysia after the NEP’, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 17(1): 27–40.Google Scholar
Liu, Olin (2001) ‘Overview’, in Meesook, Kanitta, Lee, Il Houng, Liu, Olin et al., Malaysia: From Crisis to Recovery, Washington, DC: IMF, 1–2.Google Scholar
London, Jonathan (2018) Welfare and Inequality in Marketizing East Asia, London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Low, Choo Chin (2021) ‘Legal Reforms in Protecting Migrant Workers’ Welfare in Malaysia: Labor Law and Social Security’, Austrian Journal of South-East Asian Studies, 14(1): 59–80.Google Scholar
Mietzner, Marcus (2020) ‘Populist Anti-scientism, Religious Polarisation, and Institutionalised Corruption: How Indonesia’s Democratic Decline Shaped its COVID-19 Response’, Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 39(2): 227–49.Google Scholar
Miller, Walter (1986) ‘Aquino to Launch Campaign for New Constitution’, Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 28 December: 30.Google Scholar
Moroz, Harry (2020) ‘The Role of Social Protection in Building, Protecting, and Deploying Human Capital in the East Asia and Pacific Region’, Social Protection and Jobs Discussion Paper No. 2008, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Murphy, John (2019) ‘The Historical Development of Indonesian Social Security’, Asian Journal of Social Science, 47(2): 255–79.Google Scholar
Nam, Illan (2015) Democratizing Health Care: Welfare State Building in Korea and Thailand, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Nam, Illan (2018) ‘Partnering for Universal Health Coverage in Thailand’, Asian Survey, 58(2): 213–39.Google Scholar
Nino-Zarazua, Miguel, Barrientos, Armando, Hickey, Samuel, and Hulme, David (2012) ‘Social Protection in Sub-Saharan Africa: Getting the Politics Right’, World Development, 40(1): 163–76.Google Scholar
Nixon, Stewart (2020) ‘Commentary: What Struggling Malaysians Need from this Budget is a Stronger Safety Net – Higher Taxes’, channel.newsasia.com/commentary: 5 November, accessed 10 December 2021.Google Scholar
Park, Donghyun (ed.) (2012) Pension Systems in East and Southeast Asia: Promoting Fairness and Sustainability, Manila: ADB.Google Scholar
Pascual, Federico D. Jnr (2021) ‘Government Crooks Feast on COVID-19 Crisis’, philstar.com/opinion, 26 September, accessed 10 December 2021.Google Scholar
Paweenawat, Sasiwimon Warunsiri and Vechbanyongratana, Jessica (2015) ‘The Impact of a Universal Old Age Allowance for Older Persons on Labour Force Participation: The Case of Thailand’, Population Review, 54(1): 53–68.Google Scholar
Peng, Ito and Wong, Joseph (2010) ‘East Asia’, in Castles, Frank, Leibfried, Stephan, Lewis, Jane, Obinger, Herbert and Pierson, Christopher (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Welfare State, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 656–70.Google Scholar
Perez-Rubio, Bella (2020) ‘Teachers’ Group to DepEd: Revise ‘Failed’ Blended Learning Plan or Postpone Class Resumption’, www.philstar.com/headlines/, accessed 24 January 2022.Google Scholar
Pernia, Ernesto and Knowles, James (1998) ‘Assessing the Social Impact of the Financial Crisis in Asia’, EDRC Briefing Notes 6, Manila: ADB.Google Scholar
Phongpaichit, Pasuk and Baker, Chris (2014) ‘A Short Account of the Rise and Fall of the Thai Technocracy’, Southeast Asian Studies, 3(2): 283–98.Google Scholar
Phongpaichit, Pasuk and Baker, Chris (eds.) (2016) Unequal Thailand: Aspects of Income, Wealth, and Power, Singapore: NUS Press.Google Scholar
Pierson, Christopher (2005) ‘“Late Industrializers” and the Development of Welfare Regimes’, Acta Politica, 40: 395–418.Google Scholar
Pineda, Edwin Shea (2019) ‘The Philippine Pension System: New Buttresses for the Old Multi-Pillar Architecture’, Nomura Journal of Asian Capital Markets, 3(2): 21–7.Google Scholar
Elizabeth, Pisani, Kok, Maarten and Nugroho, Kharisma (2017) ‘Indonesia’s Road to Universal Health Coverage’, Health Policy and Planning, 32: 267–76.Google Scholar
Pongsudhirak, Thitinan (2015) ‘What’s Next for Thailand?’ www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/05/, accessed 10 December 2021.Google Scholar
Pongsudhirak, Thitinan (2020) ‘Top Brass, Technocrats, Politicos All Same’, Bangkok Post, 12 June, www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1933284/, accessed 23 January 2022.Google Scholar
Pongsudhirak, Thitinan (2021) ‘As COVID-19 Spreads, Thai Govt Stuck in Self-Made Trap’, Irrawaddy.com/opinion/guest-column, 5 July, accessed 10 December 2021.Google Scholar
Prabhakaran, Shreeshant, Dutta, Arin, Fagan, Thomas and Ginivan, Megan (2019) Financial Sustainability of Indonesia’s Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional: Performance, Prospects, and Policy Options. Washington, DC: Palladium, Health Policy Plus, and Jakarta: Tim Nasional Percepatan Penanggulangan Kemiskinan (TNP2 K).Google Scholar
Quimpo, Nathan (2005) ‘Oligarchic Patrimonialism, Bossism, Electoral Clientism and Contested Democracy’, Comparative Politics, 37(2): 229–50.Google Scholar
Quimpo, Nathan (2020) ‘The Post-War Rise and Decline of the Left’, in Carroll, Toby, Hameiri, Shahar and Jones, Lee (eds.), The Political Economy of Southeast Asia: Politics and Uneven Development Under Hyperglobalisation, Cham: Palgrave, 133–54.Google Scholar
Ramesh, Mishra (2000) ‘The State and Social Security in Indonesia and Thailand’, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 30(4): 534–46.Google Scholar
Ramesh, Mishra and Asher, Mukul (2000) Welfare Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Social Security, Health and Education Policies, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Ramos, Charmaine (2020) ‘Change Without Transformation: Social Policy Reforms in the Philippines Under Duterte’, Development and Change, 51(2): 485–505.Google Scholar
Rasiah, Rajah, Tumin, Makmor, Hameed, Latifa and Ndoma, Ibrahim (2017) ‘Civil Society Organizations in Opposition to Healthcare Commercialization: Protecting Access for the Poor and Middle Class in Malaysia’, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 46(3): 567–85.Google Scholar
Reid, Ben (2008) ‘Development NGOs, Semiclientelism, and the State in the Philippines: From “Crossover” to Double Crossed’, Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies, 23(1): 4–42.Google Scholar
Reinecke, Gerhard (1993) ‘Social Security in Thailand: Political Decisions and Distributional Impact’, Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 8(1): 78–115.Google Scholar
Rhoden, T. F. (2015) ‘Oligarchy in Thailand?’ Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 34(1): 3–25.Google Scholar
Riep, Curtis (2015) Corporatised Education in the Philippines: Pearson, Ayala Corporation and the Emergence of Affordable Private Education Centers (APEC), Brussels: Educational International.Google Scholar
Robison, Richard and Hadiz, Vedi (2004) Reorganising Power in Indonesia: The Politics of Oligarchy in an Age of Markets, New York: RoutledgeCurzon.Google Scholar
Rokx, Claudia, Schieber, George, Harimurti, Pandu, Tandon, Ajay and Somanathan, Aparnaa (2009) Health Financing in Indonesia: A Reform Road Map, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew (2002) The Politics of Economic Liberalisation in Indonesia: State, Market and Power, Richmond: Curzon.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew (2012) ‘Realising Free Health Care for the Poor in Indonesia: The Politics of Illegal Fees’, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 42(2): 255–75.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew (2016) ‘Neoliberalism and the Politics of Higher Education Policy in Indonesia’, Comparative Education, 52(2): 109–35.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew (2017) Litigating the Right to Health in Indonesia: Courts, Politics and Justice, Honolulu: East West Center.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew, Roesad, Kurnya and Edwin, Donni (2005) ‘Indonesia: The Politics of Inclusion’, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 35 (1): 53–77.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew and Wilson, Ian (2012) ‘Democratic Decentralisation and Pro-poor Policy Reform in Indonesia: The Politics of Health Insurance for the Poor in Jembrana and Tabanan’, Asian Journal of Social Science, 40(5–6): 608–34.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew and Joshi, Anuradha (2013) ‘From User Fees to Fee-Free: The Politics of Realising Universal Free Basic Education in Indonesia’, Journal of Development Studies, 49(2): 175–89.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew and Sulistiyanto, Priyambudi (2013) ‘The Politics of Universal Free Basic Education in Indonesia: Insights from Yogyakarta’, Pacific Affairs, 86(3): 539–60.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew and Fahmi, Mohamad (2016) The Political Economy of Teacher Management in Decentralised Indonesia, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper no. 7913.Google Scholar
Rosser, Andrew and Maryke, van Diermen (2018) ‘Beyond Predatory Productivism? The Political Economy of Welfare Capitalism in Post-New Order Indonesia’, in Lim, Hyun-Chin, Pieterse, Jan Nederveen and Hwang, Suk-Man (eds.), Capitalism and Capitalisms in Asia: Origin, Commonality, and Diversity, Seoul: Seoul National University Press, 301–25.Google Scholar
Rudner, Martin (1977) ‘Education, Development and Social Change in Malaysia’, South East Asian Studies, 15(1): 23–62.Google Scholar
Salleh, Halim (2012) ‘Welfare Regimes, Social Services and Poverty Reduction’, in Teik, Khoo Boo (ed.), Policy Regimes and the Political Economy of Poverty Reduction in Malaysia, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 145–82.Google Scholar
Juan, San, David, (2016) ‘Neoliberal Restructuring of Education in the Philippines: Dependency, Labour, Privatization, Critical Pedagogy, and the K to 12 System’, Asia-Pacific Social Science Review, 16(1): 80–110.Google Scholar
Schweisfurth, Michele, Lynn Davies, Lorraine Pe Symaco, and Oscar Valiente with Chelsea Robles (2016) Developmental Leadership in the Philippines: Educational Experiences, Institutions and Networks, Birmingham: Developmental Leadership Program.Google Scholar
Setijadi, Charlotte (2021) ‘The Pandemic as Political Opportunity: Jokowi’s Indonesia in the Time of Covid-19’, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 57(3): 297–320.Google Scholar
Sicat, Charlotte Justine and Maria Alma, P. Mariano, (2021) Public Expenditure Review of Social Protection Programs in the Philippines, Quezon City: Philippine Institute of Development Studies.Google Scholar
Sirindhorn, HRH Chakra, Maha (2018) ‘History and Development of Thai Education’, in Fry, Gerald (ed.), Education in Thailand: An Old Elephant in Search of a New Mahout, Singapore: Springer, 3–32.Google Scholar
Sjafrina, Almas and Anggraeni, Dewi (2021) Tren Penindakan Korupsi Sektor Pendidikan: Pendidikan di Tengah Kepungan Korupsi, Jakarta: Indonesia Corruption Watch.Google Scholar
Smullen, Amanda and Hong, Phua Kai (2015) ‘Comparing the Health Care Systems of High-Performing Asian Countries’, Asia and the Pacific Policy Studies, 2(2): 347–55.Google Scholar
Sombatpoonsiri, Janjira and Mahapatra, Sangeeta (2021) ‘COVID-19 Intensifies Digital Repression in South and Southeast Asia’, https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/10/19/, accessed 23 January 2022.Google Scholar
Sparrow, Robert, Budiyati, Sri, Yumna, Athia et al. (2017) ‘Sub-national Health Care Financing Reforms in Indonesia’, Health Policy and Planning, 32: 91–101.Google Scholar
Streeck, Wolfgang and Thelen, Kathleen (2005) ‘Introduction’, in Streeck and Thelan (eds.), Beyond Continuity: Institutional Change in Advanced Political Economies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1–39.Google Scholar
Sumarto, Mulyadi (2020) ‘Insecurity and Historical Legacies in Welfare Regime Change in Southeast Asia – Insights from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand’, Social Policy and Society, 19(4): 629–43.Google Scholar
Suwanrada, Worawet (2009) ‘Poverty and Financial Security of the Elderly in Thailand’, Ageing International, 33: 50–61.Google Scholar
Suwanrada, Worawet and Wesumperuma, Dhamapriya (2012) ‘Development of the Old-Age Allowance System in Thailand: Challenges and policy implications’, in Handayani, Sri Wening and Babajanian, Babken (eds.), Social Protection for Older Persons: Social Pensions in Asia, Manila: ADB, 153–67.Google Scholar
Suwanrada, Worawet, Sukontamarn, Pataporn and Bankkaew, Busarin (2018) ‘Who Supports Intergenerational Redistribution Policy? Evidence from Old-age Allowance System in Thailand’, The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, 12: 24–34.Google Scholar
Tadem, Teresa Encarnacion (2014) ‘Philippine Technocracy and the Politics of Economic Decision-Making: A Comparison of the Martial Law and Post-Martial Law Periods’, Southeast Asian Studies, 3(2): 345–81.Google Scholar
Tadem, Teresa Encarnacion (2018) ‘Technocracy and Class Politics in Policy-making’, in Thompson, Mark and Batalla, Eric (eds.), Routledge Handbook of the Contemporary Philippines, London: Routledge, 261–71.Google Scholar
Tadem, Teresa Encarnacion (2020) ‘The Emergence of Filipino Technocrats as Cold War “Pawns”’, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 50(4): 530–50.Google Scholar
Tan, Jeff (2015) ‘Rent-Seeking and Money Politics in Malaysia: Ethnicity, Cronyism and Class’ in Weiss, Meredith (ed.), Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Malaysia, London: Routledge, 200–13.Google Scholar
Teerawichitchainan, Bussarawan and Pothisiri, Wiraporn (2021) ‘Expansion of Thailand’s Social Pension Policy and its Implications for Family Support for Older Persons’, International Journal of Social Welfare, 30: 428–42.Google Scholar
Thai PBS World (2021a), ‘How a Flaw in the System Lands Thailand’s Elderly in Trouble’, www.thaipbsworld.com/ accessed 30 December 2021Google Scholar
Thai PBS World (2021b) ‘Will COVID-19 Give Birth to a Welfare State in Thailand’, thaipbsworld.com/ 25 March, accessed 10 December 2021.Google Scholar
Thompson, Mark (2010) ‘Reformism vs. Populism in the Philippines’, Journal of Democracy, 21(4): 154–68.Google Scholar
Transparency International (2020) Global Corruption Barometer Asia: Citizens’ Views and Experiences of Corruption, Berlin: Transparency International.Google Scholar
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2016) Leaving No One Behind: A Social Protection Primer for Practitioners, New York: UNDP.Google Scholar
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) (2018a) Social Outlook for Asia and the Pacific: Poorly Protected, Bangkok: UNESCAP.Google Scholar
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific ( UNESCAP) (2018b) Inequality in Asia and the Pacific in the Era of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Bangkok: UN.Google Scholar
UNESCAP and ILO (2021) The Protection We Want: Social Outlook for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok: UN.Google Scholar
United States Agency for International Development ( USAID), Education Quality and Access for Learning and Livelihood Skills ( EQuALLS) and Education and Livelihood Skills Alliance (ELSA) (2007) Policy Research on Access to Quality Basic Education for Muslim Learners, Washington, DC: USAID.Google Scholar
Vaghefi, Negin, Kari, Fatimah and Talih, Muzulwana Abdul (2017) ‘Poverty and Income Replacement Profile among EPF Retirees in Malaysia’, Social Indicators Research, 132: 1065–78.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, M. Rebecca (2000) ‘Asian Crisis and the Philippines: Counting the Social Costs’, in Van Hoa, T. (ed.), The Social Impact of the Asia Crisis, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 17–33.Google Scholar
Maryke, Van Diermen (2017) Welfare in Motion: The Politics of Social Protection in Indonesia, PhD Thesis, Adelaide: University of Adelaide.Google Scholar
Velarde, Rashiel B. and Jose, Ramon G. Albert, (2018) The Socpen and its Role in Closing the Coverage Gap among Poor Elderly Filipinos, World Bank Social Protection Policy Note 14.Google Scholar
Villegas, Bernardo (2021) ‘Addressing the Philippine Education Crisis’, Business World, 23 June: S1/7.Google Scholar
Walden, Max (2020) ‘Malaysia Stares Down Health, Political Crises as Anwar Ibrahim Strikes Back’, www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-06/, accessed 23 January 2022.Google Scholar
Wei, Justen Han, Wong, Wan, Ng Chiu and Tin, Su Tin (2019) ‘Malaysia’s Rural Health Development: Foundation of Universal Health Coverage (UHC)’, Jurnal Sains Kesihatan Malaysia, 17(1): 31–41.Google Scholar
Weiss, Meredith (2003) ‘The Malaysian Human Rights Movement’, in Weiss, Meredith and Hassan, Saliha (eds.), Social Movements in Malaysia: From Moral Communities to NGOs, London: Routledge: 140–64.Google Scholar
Weiss, Meredith (2013) ‘Malaysia’s 13th General Elections: Same Result, Different Outcome’, Asian Survey, 53(6): 1135–58.Google Scholar
Wesumperuma, Dharmapriya (2009) ‘Pension Fund: “Social Pensions” Ensure Income Security in Old Age’ Bangkok Post, 20 January, www.pension-watch.net/knowledge-centre/?guid=4d4d28a367f29&order=n.Google Scholar
Widoyoko, Danang (2011) ‘The Education Sector: The Fragmentation and Adaptability of Corruption’, in Aspinall, Edward and Gerry, van Klinken (eds.), The State and Illegality in Indonesia, Leiden: KITLV, 165–88.Google Scholar
Williams, Geoffrey (2021) ‘Time for a National Social Assistance Fund to help the Poor’, freemalaysiatoday.com/category/opinion: 13 October 2021, accessed 10 December 2021.Google Scholar
Winters, Jeffrey (1996) Power in Motion: Capital Mobility and the Indonesian State, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Winters, Jeffery (2012) ‘Oligarchs and Oligarchy in Southeast Asia’, in Robison, Richard (ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Southeast Asian Politics, London: Routledge, 53–67.Google Scholar
Wisnu, Dinna (2007) Governing Social Security: Economic Crisis and Reform in Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore. PhD Thesis, Columbus: Ohio State University.Google Scholar
World Bank (1988a) The Philippines Education Sector Study: Part One: Overview and Summary, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (1988b) The Philippines Education Sector Study: Part Two: Technical Chapters and Annexes, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (1998) Education in Indonesia: From Crisis to Recovery, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (1999) Country Assistance Strategy of the World Bank Group for the Republic of the Philippines, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (2000) Health Strategy in a Post-Crisis, Decentralizing Indonesia, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (2001) Social Protection Sector Strategy: From Safety Net to Springboard, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (2012) Reducing Elderly Poverty in Thailand: The Role of Thailand’s Pension and Social Assistance Programs, Bangkok: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (2014) ‘Extending Protection to the Poor Where the Needs are Greatest’, www.worldbank.org/en/results/2014/04/28/, accessed 3 November 2021.Google Scholar
World Bank (2018a) Philippines: Social Protection Review and Assessment, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (2018b) Case Study of the Employees Provident Fund in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (2020a) Malaysia Economic Monitor, June 2020: Surviving the Storm, Kuala Lumpur: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (2020b) Philippines Basic Education: Public Expenditure Review, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank (2021) Regaining Lost Ground, Revitalizing the Filipino Workforce, Taguig City: World Bank.Google Scholar
WHO (2022) ‘Coronavirus Dashboard’, https://covid19.who.int/ accessed 3 September 2022.Google Scholar
Yarrow, Noah and Afkar, Rythia (2021) ‘Rewrite the Future: How Indonesia can Overcome the Student Learning Losses from the Pandemic and Increase Learning Outcomes for All’, https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/, accessed 24 January 2022.Google Scholar
Yuda, Taufid (2020) ‘The Development of “Islamic Welfare Regime” in South East Asia: Drawing Experiences from Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, and Indonesia’, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 40(3/4): 220–35.Google Scholar
- 5
- Cited by