Aarts, K., and H. A. Semetko. 2003. “The divided electorate: Media use and political involvement.” Journal of Politics 65(3): 759–784.
Abrams, S., T. Iversen, and D. Soskice. 2010. “Informal social networks and rational voting.” British Journal of Political Science 41(2): 229–257.
Abramson, P. R., and J. H. Aldrich. 1982. “The decline of electoral participation in America.” The American Political Science Review 76(3): 502–521.
Achen, C. H. 2010. “Report on the performance of the new question about civic duty in the 2010 ANES.” Unpublished manuscript.
Aguilar, E. E., and A. C. Pacek. 2000. “Macroeconomic conditions, voter turnout, and the working-class/economically disadvantaged party vote in developing countries.” Comparative Political Studies 33(8): 995–1017.
Aldrich, J. H. 1997. “When is it rational to vote?” In D. Mueller (Ed.), Perspectives on public choice: A handbook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 373–390.
Aldrich, J. H., J. M. Montgomery, and W. Wood. 2011. “Turnout as a Habit.” Political Behavior 33(4): 535–563.
Alesina, A. F, and P. Giuliano. 2009. “Preferences for redistribution.” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper.
Alesina, A. F., G. Cozzi, and N. Mantovan. 2009. “The evolution of ideology, fairness and redistribution.” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper.
Alesina, A. F., and E. L. Glaeser. 2005. Fighting poverty in the US and Europe: A world of difference. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Alesina, A. F., and N. Fuchs-Schündeln. 2006. “Good bye Lenin (or not?): The effect of Communism on people’s preferences.” Working paper.
Alesina, A. F., and G. M. Angeletos. 2005. “Fairness and redistribution.” The American Economic Review 95(4): 960–980.
Alesina, A. F., N. Roubini, and G. D. Cohen. 1997. Political cycles and the macroeconomy. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Alford, R. R. 1963. Party and society: The Anglo-American democracies. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Allern, E. H., N. Aylott, and F. J. Christiansen. 2007. “Social Democrats and trade unions in Scandinavia: The decline and persistence of institutional relationships.” European Journal of Political Research 46(5): 607–635.
Amat, F., and E. Wibbels. 2009. “Electoral incentives, group identity and preferences for redistribution.” Estudios/Working Papers (Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Ciencias Sociales) 246.
Andersen, R., and T. Fetner. 2008. “Economic inequality and intolerance: attitudes toward homosexuality in 35 democracies.” American Journal of Political Science 52(4): 942–958.
Anderson, C. J., and P. Beramendi. 2008. “Income, inequality and electoral participation.” In P. Beramendi and C. J. Anderson (Eds.), Democracy, inequality and representation. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Anderson, C. J., and M. M. Singer. 2008. “The sensitive left and the impervious right.” Comparative Political Studies 41(4–5): 564–599.
Anderson, J. 2009. Cognitive psychology and its implications. NY: Worth Publishers Inc.
Anduiza, E. 1999. 166 ¿Individuos o sistemas? Las razones de la abstención en Europa Occidental. Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas. Siglo Veintiuno de Españą Editores.
Anduiza, E.. 2002. “Individual characteristics, institutional incentives and electoral abstention in Western Europe.” European Journal of Political Research 41(5): 643–673.
Angrist, J. D., and J. S. Pischke. 2008. Mostly harmless econometrics: An empiricist’s companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Ansolabehere, S., and D. M. Konisky. 2006. “The introduction of voter registration and its effect on turnout.” Political Analysis 14(1): 83–100.
APSA Task Force on Inequality and American Democracy. 2004. “American Democracy in an Age of Rising Inequality.” Report to the American Political Science Association.
Armstrong, D. A., and R. M. Duch. 2010. “Why can voters anticipate post-election coalition formation likelihoods?” Electoral Studies 29(3): 308–315.
Art, D., and T. Turner. 2007. “Trade unions and political participation in the European Union: Still providing a democratic dividend?” British Journal of Industrial Relations 45(1): 103–126.
Baek, M. 2009. “A comparative analysis of political communication systems and voter turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 53(2): 376–393.
Baldini, G. 2011. “The Different Trajectories of Italian Electoral Reforms.” West European Politics 34(3): 644–663.
Banerjee, A. V., and E. Duflo. 2003. “Inequality and growth: What can the data say?” Journal of Economic Growth 8(3): 267–299.
Bargsted, M. A., and O. Kedar. 2009. “Coalition-targeted Duvergerian voting: How expectations affect voter choice under proportional representation.” American Journal of Political Science 53(2): 307–323.
Baron, R. M., and D. A. Kenny. 1986. “The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51(6): 1173–1182.
Bartels, L. M. et al. 2004. “Inequality and American democracy: What we know and what we need to learn.” Report to the American Political Science Association.
Bartels, L. M. 2008. Unequal democracy: The political economy of the New Gilded Age. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Bartle, J. 2005. “Homogeneous models and heterogeneous voters.” Political Studies 53(4): 653–675.
Bartolini, S. 2000. The political mobilization of the European left, 1860–1980. New York, Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press.
Becher, M., and J. Pontusson. 2011. “Whose interests do unions represent? Unionization by income in Western Europe.” Research in the Sociology of Work 22: 181–211.
Beitz, C. R. 1989. Political equality: An essay in democratic theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Benabou, R. 2000. “Unequal societies: Income distribution and the social contract.” American Economic Review 90(1): 96–129.
Bendor, J. et al. 2011. A behavioral theory of elections. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Bennett, S. E., and D. Resnick. 1990. “The implications of nonvoting for democracy in the United States.” American Journal of Political Science 34(3): 771–802.
Beramendi, P., and C. Anderson. 2008. Democracy, inequality, and representation: A comparative perspective. Russell Sage Foundation Publications.
Berinsky, A. J., and G. S Lenz. 2011. “Education and political participation: Exploring the causal link.” Political Behavior 33(3): 1–17.
Bernhagen, P., and M. Marsh. 2007. “The partisan effects of low turnout: Analyzing vote abstention as a missing data problem.” Electoral Studies 26(3): 548–560.
Bernstein, R., A. Chadha, and R. Montjoy. 2001. “Overreporting voting: Why it happens and why it matters.” Public Opinion Quarterly 65(1): 22–44.
Birch, S. 2009. Full participation. New York: United Nations University Press.
Blais, A. 1988. “The classification of electoral systems.” European Journal of Political Research 16(1): 99–110.
Blais, A.. 2000. To vote or not to vote?: The merits and limits of rational choice theory. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Blais, A.. 2006. “What affects voter turnout?” Annual Review of Political Science 9: 111–125.
Blais, A., and A. Dobrzynska. 1998. “Turnout in electoral democracies.” European Journal of Political Research 33(2): 239–262.
Blais, A., and C. H Achen. 2010. “Taking civic duty seriously: Political theory and voter turnout.” Unpublished Paper. Princeton, NJ.
Blais, A., and K. Aarts. 2006. “Electoral systems and turnout.” Acta politica 41(2): 180–196.
Blais, A., and S. Labbé-St-Vincent. 2011. “Personality traits, political attitudes and the propensity to vote.” European Journal of Political Research 50(3): 395–417.
Blais, A., et al. 2004. “Where does turnout decline come from?” European Journal of Political Research 43(2): 221–236.
Blais, A., et al. 2006. “Do voters vote for government coalitions?” Party Politics 12(6): 691–705.
Blaydes, L. 2011. Elections and distributive politics in Mubarak’s Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bohrer II, R. E., A. C. Pacek, and B. Radcliff. 2000. “Electoral participation, ideology, and party politics in post-communist Europe.” Journal of Politics 62(4): 1161–1172.
Bowler, S., and D. M. Farrell. 1993. “Legislator shirking and voter monitoring: Impacts of European Parliament electoral systems upon legislator voter relationships.” Journal of Common Market Studies 31(1): 45–70.
Brady, H. E., and J. E. McNulty. 2011. “Turning out to vote: The costs of finding and getting to the polling place.” American Political Science Review 105(1): 115–134.
Brady, H. E. 2004. “An analytical perspective on participatory inequality and income inequality.” In K. Neckerman (Ed.), Social Inequality. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 667–702.
Brandolini, A., and T. M. Smeeding. 2008. “Inequality patterns in Western democracies: Cross-country differences and changes over time.” American Journal of Political Science 43(3): 649–80.
Brians, C. L., and B. Grofman. 1999. “When registration barriers fall, who votes?: An empirical test of a rational choice model.” Public Choice 99(1): 161–176.
Brians, C. L., and B. Grofman. 2001. “Election Day Registration’s effect on U. S. voter turnout.” Social Science Quarterly 82(1): 170–183.
Brockington, D. 2004. “The paradox of proportional representation: The effect of party systems and coalitions on individuals’ electoral participation.” Political Studies 52(3): 469–490.
Bryson, A., B. Ebbinghaus, and J. Visser. 2011. “Introduction: Causes, consequences, and cures of union decline.” European Journal of Industrial Relations 17(2): 97–105.
Bühlmann, M., and M. Freitag. 2006. “Individual and contextual determinants of electoral participation.” Swiss Political Science Review 12(4): 13–47.
Bullock III, C. S., and M. V. Hood III. 2002. “One person – no vote; one vote; two votes: Voting methods, ballot types, and undervote frequency in the 2000 presidential election.” Social Science Quarterly 83(4): 981–993.
Bullock, J. G., and S. E. Ha. 2011. “Mediation analysis is harder than it looks.” In J. N. Druckman et al. (Eds.), Cambridge Handbook of Experimental Political Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Burnham, W. D. 1982. The current crisis in American politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Burnham, W. D.. 1987. “The turnout problem.” In A. J. Reichley (Ed.), Elections American Style. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Burstein, P. 1972. “Social structure and individual political participation in five countries.” The American Journal of Sociology 77(6): 1087–1110.
Calvo, E., M. Escolar, and J. Pomares. 2009. “Ballot design and split ticket voting in multiparty systems: Experimental evidence on information effects and vote choice.” Electoral Studies 28(2): 218–231.
Campbell, A., et al. 1960. The American voter. New York: Wiley.
Campbell, D. E. 2006. Why we vote: How schools and communities shape our civic life. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Campbell, A., G. Gurin, and W. E. Miller. 1954. The voter decides. Evanston: Row Peterson.
Carey, J. M., and M. S. Shugart. 1995. “Incentives to cultivate a personal vote: a rank ordering of electoral formulas.” Electoral Studies 14: 417–440.
Ceobanu, A. M., and X. Escandell. 2010. “Comparative analyses of public attitudes toward immigrants and immigration using multinational survey data: A review of theories and research.” Annual Review of Sociology 36: 309–328.
Chen, C. F. 2006. “The legislative election in Taiwan, December 2004.” Electoral Studies 25(4): 820–825.
Chong, A., and M. Olivera. 2008. “Does compulsory voting help equalize incomes?” Economics & Politics 20(3): 391–415.
Citrin, J., E. Schickler, and J. Sides. 2003. “What if everyone voted? Simulating the impact of increased turnout in senate elections.” American Journal of Political Science 47(1): 75–90.
Clark, W. R., M. Golder, and S. N. Golder. 2009. Principles of comparative politics. Washington: CQ Press.
Clarke, H. D. et al. 2004. Political choice in Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Colomer, J. M. 2004. Handbook of electoral system choice. London: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2004.
Converse, P. E. 1972. “Change in the American electorate.” In A. Campbelland P. E. Converse (Eds.), The Human Meaning of Social Change. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 263–337.
Cox, G. W., and M. C. Munger. 1989. “Closeness, expenditures, and turnout in the 1982 US House elections.” The American Political Science Review 83(1): 217–231.
Cox, G. W. 1990. “Centripetal and centrifugal incentives in electoral systems.” American Journal of Political Science 34(4): 903–935.
Curran, J. et al. 2009. “Media system, public knowledge, and democracy.” European Journal of Communication 24(1): 5.
Cutts, D., and E. Fieldhouse. 2009. “What small spatial scales are relevant as electoral contexts for individual voters? The importance of the household on turnout at the 2001 General Election.” American Journal of Political Science 53(3): 726–739.
Dahl, R. A. 1971. Polyarchy: Participation and opposition. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Dahl, R. A.. 2008. On Political Equality. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Dallinger, U. 2010. “Public support for redistribution: What explains cross-national differences?” Journal of European Social Policy 20(4): 333.
Dalton, R. J. 2006. Citizen politics: Public opinion and political parties in advanced industrial democracies. Washington: CQ Press.
Dalton, R. J.. 2008. “Citizenship norms and the expansion of political participation.” Political Studies 56(1): 76–98.
Dalton, R. J., and M. P. Wattenberg. 2000. Parties without partisans: Political change in advanced industrial democracies. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
Daly, M., M. Wilson, and S. Vasdev. 2001. “Income inequality and homicide rates in Canada and the United States.” Canadian Journal of Criminology 43(2): 219–236.
Daniels, G., and J. McIlroy. 2009. Trade unions in a neoliberal world. New York: Routledge.
De La O., A. L., and J. A. Rodden. 2008. “Does religion distract the poor?” Comparative Political Studies 41(4–5): 437–476.
Delli-Carpini, M. X., and S. Keeter. 1996. What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Dee, T. S. 2004. “Are there civic returns to education?” Journal of Public Economics 88(9–10): 1697–1720.
Dimock, M. and S. Popkin. 1997 “Political knowledge in comparative perspective.” In S. Iyengar and R. Reeves (Eds.), Do the media govern?Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dion, M. L., and V. Birchfield. 2010. “Economic development, income inequality, and preferences for redistribution.” International Studies Quarterly 54(2): 315–334.
Doherty, D. J., A. S. Gerber, and D. P. Green. 2006. “Personal income and attitudes toward redistribution: A study of lottery winners.” Political Psychology 27(3): 441–458.
Downs, A. 1957. An economic theory of democracy. New York: Harper & Row.
Druckman, J. N., and C. D. Kam. 2011. “Students as experimental participants.” In J. N. Druckman et al. (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of experimental political science. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Duffy, J., and M. Tavits. 2008. “Beliefs and voting decisions: A test of the pivotal voter model.” American Journal of Political Science 52(3): 603–618.
Dyck, J. J., and J. G. Gimpel. 2005. “Distance, turnout, and the convenience of voting.” Social Science Quarterly 86(3): 531–548.
Ebbinghaus, B., and J. Visser. 1999. Trade unions in Western Europe since 1945. New York: Grove’s Dictionaries.
Ebbinghaus, B., C. Göbel, and S. Koos. 2011. “Social capital, ‘Ghent’ and workplace contexts matter: Comparing union membership in Europe.” European Journal of Industrial Relations 17(2): 107.
Elklit, J. 2011. “Preferential voting in Denmark: How, why, and to what effect?” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association.
Emler, N., and E. Fraser. 1999. “Politics: the education effect.” Oxford Review of Education 25(1–2): 251–72.
Enns, P. K, and C. Wlezien. 2011. Who gets represented?NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Esping-Andersen, G. 1990. The three worlds of welfare capitalism. London: Polity Press.
European Social Survey Round 3 Data. 2006. Data file edition 3.3. Norwegian Social Science Data Services, Norway – Data Archive and distributor of ESS data (downloaded in July 2011).
European Social Survey Round 4 Data. 2008. Data file edition 4.0. Norwegian Social Science Data Services, Norway – Data Archive and distributor of ESS data (downloaded in July 2011).
Fazekas, Z. 2011. “Institutional effects on the presence of trade unions at the workplace: Moderation in a multilevel setting.” European Journal of Industrial Relations 17(2): 153.
Fisher, S. D. et al. 2008. “Disengaging voters: Do plurality systems discourage the less knowledgeable from voting?” Electoral Studies 27(1): 89–104.
Fiske, S. T., R. R. Lau, and R. A. Smith. 1990. “On the varieties and utilities of political expertise.” Social Cognition 8(1): 31–48.
Flavin, P., and B. Radcliff. 2011. “Labor union membership and voting across nations.” Electoral Studies. 20(4): 633–641.
Fowler, A. 2001. “Turnout matters: Evidence from compulsory voting in Australia.” SSRN Working paper.
Fowler, J. H. 2006. “Habitual voting and behavioral turnout.” The Journal of Politics 68(2): 335–344.
Fowler, J. H.. 2008. “Altruism and turnout.” The Journal of Politics 68(3): 674–683.
Fowler, J. H., L. A. Baker, and C. T. Dawes. 2008. “Genetic variation in political participation.” American Political Science Review 102(2): 233–248.
Franklin, M. N. 2004. Voter turnout and the dynamics of electoral competition in established democracies since 1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Franklin, M. N., C. van der Eijk, and E. Oppenhuis. 1996. “The institutional context: Turnout.” In Van derEijk and M. N. Franklin (Eds.), Choosing Europe?: The European electorate and national politics in the face of union. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 306–331.
Franzese Jr., R. J. 2002. “Electoral and partisan cycles in economic policies and outcomes.” Annual Review of Political Science 5(1): 369–421.
Franzese, R., and J. Hays. 2008. “Inequality and unemployment, redistribution and insurance, and participation: A theoretical model and an empirical system of endogenous equations.” In P. Beramendi and C. Anderson (Eds.), Democracy, inequality, and representation, NY: Russell Sage.
Freeman, R. B. 2003. “What do unions do…to voting?” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper.
Gallagher, M. 2001. “The Japanese House of Councillors election 1998 in comparative perspective.” Electoral Studies 20(4): 603–625.
Gallagher, M., and P. Mitchell. 2005. The politics of electoral systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gallego, Aina. 2008. One person, one vote? Unequal participation in comparative perspective. Doctoral dissertation, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona.
Gallego, Aina. 2009. “Where else does turnout decline come from? Education, age, generation and period effects in three European countries.” Scandinavian Political Studies 32(1): 23–44.
Gallego, Aina. 2010. “Understanding unequal turnout: Education and voting in comparative perspective.” Electoral Studies 29(2): 239–247.
Gallego, A., G. Rico, and E. Anduiza. 2012. “Disproportionality and voter turnout in new and old democracies.” Electoral Studies, 31(1): 159–169.
Gelman, A., and J. Hill. 2007. Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gerber, A. S., D. P. Green, and R. Shachar. 2003. “Voting may be habit-forming: Evidence from a randomized field experiment.” American Journal of Political Science 47(3): 540–550.
Gerber, A. S., D. P. Green, and C. W. Larimer. 2008. “Social pressure and voter turnout: Evidence from a large-scale field experiment.” American Political Science Review 102(1): 33–48.
Geys, Benny. 2006. “Explaining voter turnout: A review of aggregate-level research.” Electoral Studies 25(4): 637–663.
Gilens, M. 2005. “Inequality and democratic responsiveness.” Public Opinion Quarterly 69(5): 778–796.
Gilens, M.. 2009. “Preference gaps and inequality in representation.” PS: Political Science and Politics 42(2): 335–41.
Gilens, M.. 2011. “The benevolent baker: Altruism and political attitudes in the United States.” Unpublished paper.
Golder, S. N. 2005. “Pre-electoral coalitions in comparative perspective: A test of existing hypotheses.” Electoral Studies 24(4): 643–663.
Gomez, B. T., T. G. Hansford, and G. A. Krause. 2007. “The Republicans should pray for rain: Weather, turnout, and voting in US presidential elections.” Journal of Politics 69(3): 649–663.
Goodin, R., and Dryzek, J. 1980. “Rational participation: The politics of relative power.” British Journal of Political Science 10(3): 273–292.
Gratschew, M. 2004. “Compulsory voting.” In R. López-Pintor and M. Gratschew (Eds.), Voter turnout in Western Europe since 1945. Sweden: Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance.
Gray, M., and M. Caul. 2000. “Declining voter turnout in advanced industrial democracies, 1950 to 1997: The effects of declining group mobilization.” Comparative Political Studies 33(9): 1091–1122.
Griffin, J. D., and B. Newman. 2005. “Are voters better represented?” Journal of Politics 67(4): 1206–1227.
Grofman, B. 1993. “Is turnout the paradox that ate rational choice theory?” In B. Grofman (Ed.), Information, participation, and choice: An economic theory of democracy in perspective. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Grofman, B., G. Owen, and C. Collet. 1999. “Rethinking the partisan effects of higher turnout: So what’s the question?” Public Choice 99(3): 357–376.
Gschwend, T. 2007. “Ticket-splitting and strategic voting under mixed electoral rules: Evidence from Germany.” European Journal of Political Research 46(1): 1–23.
Gschwend, T., and M. Hooghe. 2008. “Should I stay or should I go? An experimental study on voter responses to pre-electoral coalitions.” European Journal of Political Research 47(5): 556–577.
Hall, P. and D. Soskice. 2001. Varieties of capitalism: The institutional foundations of comparative advantage. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hallin, D. C., and P. Mancini. 2004. Comparing media systems: Three models of media and politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Han, H. 2009. Moved to action: Motivation, participation, and inequality in American politics. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Hanmer, M. J. 2009. Discount voting: Voter registration reforms and their effects. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hansford, T. G., and B. T. Gomez. 2010. “Estimating the electoral effects of voter turnout.” American Political Science Review 104(2): 268–288.
Hardarson, O. 2002. “The Icelandic Electoral System, 1844–1999.” In B. Grofman and A. Lijphart (Eds.), The evolution of electoral and party systems in the Nordic countries. New York: Agathon Press.
Haspel, M., and H. G. Knotts. 2005. “Location, location, location: Precinct placement and the costs of voting.” Journal of Politics 67(2): 560–573.
Henderson, J., and S. Chatfield. 2011. “Who matches? Propensity scores and bias in the causal effects of education on participation.” The Journal of Politics 73(3): 646–658.
Herron, M. C., and J. S. Sekhon. 2003. “Overvoting and Representation: An examination of overvoted presidential ballots in Broward and Miami-Dade counties.” Electoral Studies 22(1): 21–47.
Hershey, M. R. 2009. “What we know about voter-ID laws, registration, and turnout.” PS: Political Science & Politics 42(1): 87–91.
Heston, A., R. Summers, and B. Aten. 2011. Penn World Table Version 7.0, Center for International Comparisons of Production, Income and Prices at the University of Pennsylvania (downloaded in May 2011).
Highton, B. and R. E. Wolfinger. 1998. “Estimating the effects of the National Voter Registration Act of 1993.” Political Behavior 20 (2): 79–104.
Highton, B. and R. E. Wolfinger. 2001. “The political implications of higher turnout.” British Journal of Political Science 31(1): 179–192.
Hill, K. Q., and J. E. Leighley. 1992. “The policy consequences of class bias in State electorates.” American Journal of Political Science 36(2): 351–365.
Hill, K. Q., J. E. Leighley, and A. Hinton-Andersson. 1995. “Lower-class mobilization and policy linkage in the US States.” American Journal of Political Science 39(1): 75–86.
Hillygus, S. 2005. “The missing link: Exploring the relationship between higher education and political engagement.” Political Behavior 27(1): 25–47.
Hobolt, S. B., and J. A. Karp. 2010. “Voters and coalition governments.” Electoral Studies 29(3): 299–307.
Holtz-Bacha, C. and P. Norris. 2001. “To entertain, inform, and educate: Still the role of public television.” Political Communication 18: 123–140.
Hooghe, M., and K. Pelleriaux. 1998. “Compulsory voting in Belgium: An application of the Lijphart thesis.” Electoral studies 17: 419–424.
Imai, K. et al. 2011. “Unpacking the black box of causality: Learning about causal mechanisms from experimental and observational studies.” American Political Science Review 105(4): 765–789.
Irwin, G. 1974. “Compulsory voting legislation.” Comparative Political Studies 7(3): 292–315.
Iversen, T., and D. Soskice. 2006. “Electoral institutions and the politics of coalitions: Why some democracies redistribute more than others.” American Political Science Review 100(2): 165–181.
Iyengar, S. et al. 2010. “Cross-national versus individual-level differences in political information: A media systems perspective.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 20(3): 291–309.
Jackman, R. W. 1987. “Political institutions and voter turnout in the industrial democracies.” The American Political Science Review 81(2): 405–424.
Jackman, R. W., and R. A. Miller. 1995. “Voter turnout in the industrial democracies during the 1980s.” Comparative Political Studies 27(4): 467–492.
Jackman, S. 2001. “Compulsory voting.” In N. J. Smelser and P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International Encyclopaedia of the Social & Behavioural Sciences. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Jacobs, L. R., and T. Skocpol. 2005. Inequality and American democracy: What we know and what we need to learn. New York: Russell Sage.
Jusko, K. 2008. The political representation of the poor. Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan.
Jusko, K.. 2011. “Partisan Representation of the Poor: Electoral Geography, Strategic Mobilization, and Implications for Voter Turnout.” Unpublished manuscript.
Jusko, K. L., and W. P. Shively. 2005. “Applying a two-step strategy to the analysis of cross-national public opinion data.” Political Analysis 13(4): 327.
Kahneman, D. 2011. Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar Straus & Giroux.
Kam, C. D., and C. L. Palmer. 2008. “Reconsidering the effects of education on political participation.” Journal of Politics 70(3): 612–631.
Kang, S. G., and G. B. Powell Jr. 2010. “Representation and policy responsiveness: The median voter, election rules, and redistributive welfare spending.” The Journal of Politics 72(4): 1014–1028.
Karp, J. A., and D. Brockington. 2005. “Social desirability and response validity: A comparative analysis of overreporting voter turnout in five countries.” Journal of Politics 67(3): 825–840.
Karp, J. A., and S. A. Banducci. 2008. “Political efficacy and participation in twenty-seven democracies: how electoral systems shape political behaviour.” British Journal of Political Science 38(2): 311–334.
Karvonen, L. 2004. “Preferential voting: incidence and effects.” International Political Science Review 25(2): 203–226.
Katz, R. S. 1997. Democracy and elections. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kedar, O. 2005. “When moderate voters prefer extreme parties: Policy balancing in parliamentary elections.” American Political Science Review 99(2): 185–199.
Keefer, P. 2010. Database of political institutions: Changes and variable definitions. Development Research Group, World Bank (downloaded in July 2011).
Kenworthy, L., and J. Pontusson. 2005. “Rising inequality and the politics of redistribution in affluent countries.” Perspectives on Politics 3(3): 449–471.
Kim, J., J. R. Petrocik, and S. N. Enokson. 1975. “Voter turnout among the American States: Systemic and individual components.” The American Political Science Review 69(1): 107–123.
Kimball, D. C., and M. Kropf. 2005. “Ballot design and unrecorded votes on paper-based ballots.” Public Opinion Quarterly 69(4): 508.
Kissau, K. G. Lutz, and J. Rosset. 2011. “The political preferences of political elites, voters and non-voters in Europe.” Unpublished paper.
Kittilson, M. C., and L. Schwindt-Bayer. 2010. “Engaging citizens: The role of power-sharing institutions.” Journal of Politics 72(4): 990–1002.
Klingemann, H. D. 2009. The comparative study of electoral systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Klor, E. F., and M. Shayo. 2010. “Social identity and preferences over redistribution.” Journal of Public Economics 94(3–4): 269–278.
Knack, S. 2001. “Election-day Registration.” American Politics Research 29(1): 65.
Krosnick, J. A., P. S. Visser, and J. Harder. 2011. “The psychological underpinnings of political behavior.” In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, and G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (5th ed., Vol. 2). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons, 1288–1342.
Laakso, M., and R. Taagepera. 1979. “Effective number of parties: A measure with application to West Europe.” Comparative Political Studies 12(1): 3–27.
Lassen, D. D. 2005. “The effect of information on voter turnout: Evidence from a natural experiment.” American Journal of Political Science 49(1): 103–118.
Leighley, J. E., and J. Nagler. 2007. “Unions, voter turnout, and class bias in the US electorate, 1964–2004.” The Journal of Politics 69(2): 430–441.
Levine, D. K., and T. R. Palfrey. 2007. “The paradox of voter participation? A laboratory study.” American Political Science Review 101(1): 143.
Lijphart, A. 1990. “The political consequences of electoral laws, 1945–85.” The American Political Science Review 84(2): 481–496.
Lijphart, A.. 1994. Electoral systems and party systems: A study of twenty-seven democracies, 1945–1990. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lijphart, A.. 1997. “Unequal participation: Democracy’s unresolved dilemma.” The American Political Science Review 91(1): 1–14.
Lijphart, A.. 1999. Patterns of democracy: Government forms and performance in thirty-six countries. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Lopez-Pintor, R., and M. Gratschew. 2002. “Voter registration.” In R. Lopez-Pintor and M. Gratschew (Eds.), Voter turnout since 1945: A global report. Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance.
Luna, J. P., and E. J. Zechmeister. 2005. “Political representation in Latin America.” Comparative Political Studies 38(4): 388–416.
Lupia, A., M. D. McCubbins, and S. L. Popkin. 2000. Elements of reason: Cognition, choice, and the bounds of rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lutz, G., and M. Marsh. 2007. “Introduction: Consequences of low turnout.” Electoral Studies 26(3): 539–547.
Lyons, W., and R. Alexander. 2000. “A tale of two electorates: Generational replacement and the decline of voting in presidential elections.” Journal of Politics 62(4): 1014–1034.
Mahler, V. A. 2008. “Electoral turnout and income redistribution by the state: A cross-national analysis of the developed democracies.” European Journal of Political Research 47(2): 161–183.
Mankowska, K. 2011. “Income inequality and political engagement in Eastern Europe.” Unpublished manuscript.
Marcus, G. 2009. Kluge: The haphazard evolution of the human mind. Mariner Books.
Marian, C. G., and R. F. King. 2010. “Plus ça change: Electoral law reform and the 2008 Romanian parliamentary elections.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 43(1): 7–18.
Martin, P. S. 2003. “Voting’s rewards: Voter turnout, attentive publics, and congressional allocation of federal money.” American Journal of Political Science 47(1): 110–127.
Mayer, A. K. 2011. “Does education increase political participation?” The Journal of Politics 73(3): 633–645.
McCall, L., and L. Kenworthy. 2009. “Americans’ social policy preferences in the era of rising inequality.” Perspectives on Politics 7(3): 459–484.
McCuen, B., and R. B. Morton. 2010. “Tactical coalition voting and information in the laboratory.” Electoral Studies 29(3): 316–328.
Meffert, M. F., and T. Gschwend. 2011. “Polls, coalition signals and strategic voting: An experimental investigation of perceptions and effects.” European Journal of Political Research 50(5): 636–667.
Meltzer, A. H., and S. F. Richard. 1981. “A rational theory of the size of government.” The Journal of Political Economy 889(5): 914–927.
Merriam, C. E., and H. F. Gosnell. 1924. Non-voting: Causes and methods of control. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Michels, R. 1915. Political parties: A sociological study of the oligarchical tendencies of modern democracy. Free Press.
Miller, W. E, and J. M. Shanks. 1996. The new American voter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Milligan, K., E. Moretti, and P. Oreopoulos. 2004. “Does education improve citizenship? Evidence from the United States and the United Kingdom.” Journal of Public Economics 88(9–10): 1667–1695.
Milner, H. 2002. Civic literacy: How informed citizens make democracy work. Tufts University.
Mitchell, G. E., and C. Wlezien. 1995. “The impact of legal constraints on voter registration, turnout, and the composition of the American electorate.” Political Behavior 17(2): 179–202.
Montero, J. R. 1986. “La vuelta a las urnas: participación, movilización y abstención.” In J. Linz and J. R. Montero (Eds.), Crisis y cambio: Electores y partidos en la España de los años ochenta. Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucionales.
Morales, Laura. 2009. Joining political organizations: Instituitions, mobilization and participation in Western Democracies. Colchester: European Consortium for Political Research.
Mueller, D. C. 2003. Public choice III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Narud, H. M. and H. Valen. 2008. “Coalition membership and electoral performance in Western Europe.” In K. Strøm, W. C. Müller and T. Bergmann (Eds.), Cabinets and coalition bargaining. The democratic life cycle in Western Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Neckerman, K. M., and F. Torche. 2007. “Inequality: causes and consequences.” Annual Review of Sociology. 33: 335–357.
Nevitte, N., Blais, A., Gidengil, E., and Nadeau, R. 2009. “Socio-economic status and non-voting.” In H. D. Klingemann (Ed.), The Comparative Study of Electoral Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 85–108.
Nie, N. H., G. B. Powell, and K. Prewitt. 1969. “Social structure and political participation: developmental relationships, Part I.” The American Political Science Review 63(2): 361–378.
Nie, N. H., J. Junn, and K. Stehlik-Barry. 1996. Education and democratic citizenship in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nikolenyi, C. 2011. “When electoral reform fails: The stability of proportional representation in post-communist democracies.” West European Politics 34(3): 607–625.
Norris, P. 2000. A virtuous circle: Political communications in postindustrial societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Norris, P.. 2002. Democratic phoenix: Reinventing political activism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Norris, P.. 2004. Electoral engineering: Voting rules and political behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pacek, A., and B. Radcliff. 1995. “Turnout and the vote for left-of-centre parties: A cross-national analysis.” British Journal of Political Science 25(1): 137–43.
Page, B. I., and L. R. Jacobs. 2009. Class war?: What Americans really think about economic inequality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Parry, G., G. Moyser, and N. Day. 1992. Political participation and democracy in Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pereira, P. T., and J. Silva. 2009. “Citizens’ freedom to choose representatives: Ballot structure, proportionality and.” Electoral Studies 28(1): 101–110.
Persson, M. 2011. “An Empirical Test of the Relative Education Model in Sweden.” Political Behavior 33(3): 455–478.
Pierce, R., 1995. Choosing the chief: Presidential elections in France and the United States. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Piven, F. F., and R. A. Cloward. 1988. Why Americans don’t vote. New York: Pantheon Books.
Plutzer, E. 2002. “Becoming a habitual voter: Inertia, resources, and growth in young adulthood.” American Political Science Review 96(1): 41–56.
Pontusson, J., and D. Rueda. 2010. “The politics of inequality: Voter mobilization and left parties in advanced industrial states.” Comparative Political Studies 43(6): 675–705.
Popkin, S. L. and Dimock, M. 1999. “Political knowledge and citizen competence.” In S. Elkin and K. Soltan (Eds.), Citizen competence and democratic institutions. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 117–146.
Popkin, S. L. 1991. The reasoning voter: Communication and persuasion in presidential campaigns. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Powell, G. B. 1986. “American voter turnout in comparative perspective.” The American Political Science Review 80(1): 17–43.
Powell, G. B.. 2000. Elections as instruments of democracy: Majoritarian and proportional visions. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Power, T. J., and J. C. Garand. 2007. “Determinants of invalid voting in Latin America.” Electoral Studies 26(2): 432–444.
Power, T. J., and J. T. Roberts. 1995. “Compulsory voting, invalid ballots, and abstention in Brazil.” Political Research Quarterly 48(4): 795–826.
Prior, M. 2005. “News vs. entertainment: How increasing media choice widens gaps in political knowledge and turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 49(3): 577–592.
Prior, M.. 2007. Post-broadcast democracy: How media choice increases inequality in political involvement and polarizes elections. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, A. 2003. “Freedom to choose and democracy.” Economics and Philosophy 19(2): 265–279.
Przeworski, A.. 2007. “Is the science of comparative politics possible?” In C. Boix and S. Stokes (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Przeworski, A.. 2010. Democracy and the limits of self-government. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Przeworski, A., and S. C. Stokes. 1999. Democracy, accountability, and representation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Putnam, R. D. 2002. Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon and Schuster.
Quintelier, E., M. Hooghe, and S. Marien. 2011. “The effect of compulsory voting on turnout stratification patterns: A cross-national analysis.” International Political Science Review 32: 396–416.
Rabe-Hesketh, S., and A. Skrondal. 2008. Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using Stata. Stata Corp.
Radcliff, B. 2001. “Organized labor and electoral participation in American national elections.” Journal of Labor Research 22(2): 405–414.
Radcliff, B., and P. Davis. 2000. “Labor organization and electoral participation in industrial democracies.” American Journal of Political Science 44(1): 132–141.
Rae, D. 1967. The political consequences of election laws. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Renwick, A. 2010. The politics of electoral reform: Changing the rules of democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Renwick, A. and J.-B. Pilet. 2010. “Is there a trend towards the personalization of electoral systems?” Paper presented at the EPOP Annual Conference, University of Essex, 10–12 September 2010.
Reynolds, A., and M. Steenbergen. 2006. “How the world votes: The political consequences of ballot design, innovation and manipulation.” Electoral Studies 25(3): 570–598.
Roberts, A., and B. Y. Kim. 2011. “Policy Responsiveness in Post-communist Europe: Public Preferences and Economic Reforms.” British Journal of Political Science 1(1): 1–21.
Rose, R. 1978. “Citizen participation in the presidential process.” Society 16(1): 43–48.
Rosenberg, J. S., and M. Chen. 2009. Expanding democracy: Voter registration around the world. Brennan Center for Justice.
Rosenfeld, J. 2010. “Economic determinants of voting in an era of union decline.” Social Science Quarterly 91(2): 379–395.
Rosenstone, S. J., and R. E. Wolfinger. 1978. “The effect of registration laws on voter turnout.” The American Political Science Review 72(1): 22–45.
Rosenstone, S. J., and J. M. Hansen. 1993. Mobilization, participation, and democracy in America. New York: Macmillan Pub Co.
Rothstein, B., and E. M. Uslaner. 2005. “All for all: Equality, corruption, and social trust.” World Politics 58(1): 41–72.
Rubenson, D. et al. 2007. “Does low turnout matter? Evidence from the 2000 Canadian federal election.” Electoral Studies 26(3): 589–597.
Rueschemeyer, D. 2005. “Addressing Inequality.” In L. Diamond and L. Morlino (Eds.), Assessing the Quality of Democracy. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.
Schattschneider, E. E. 1960. The semisovereign people: A realist’s view of democracy in America. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Scheve, K. 2010. “Envy and altruism in hard times.” Unpublished manuscript.
Selb, P. 2009. “A deeper look at the proportionality-turnout nexus.” Comparative Political Studies 42(4): 527–548.
Shayo, M. 2009. “A model of social identity with an application to political economy: Nation, class, and redistribution.” American Political Science Review 103(2): 147–174.
Shugart, M. S., M. Ellis, and K. Suominen. n.d. “An open and closed case: Electoral rules, the personal vote, and the ‘connectedness’ of legislators.” Unpublished manuscript.
Shugart, M. S. 2005. “Comparative electoral systems research: The maturation of a field and new challenges ahead.” In M. Gallagher and P. Mitchell (Eds.), The Politics of Electoral Systems. Oxford: Oxford, 25–56.
Sigelman, L. 1982. “The nonvoting voter in voting research.” American Journal of Political Science 26(1): 47–56.
Silver, B. D., B. A. Anderson, and P. R. Abramson. 1986. “Who overreports voting?” The American Political Science Review 80(2): 613–624.
Sniderman, P. M. et al. 1991. Reasoning and choice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Söderlund, P., H. Wass, and A. Blais. 2011. “The impact of motivational and contextual factors on turnout in first-and second-order elections.” Electoral Studies, 30(4): 689–699.
Solt, F. 2008. “Economic inequality and democratic political engagement.” American Journal of Political Science 52(1): 48–60.
Solt, F.. 2009a. “Standardizing the World Income Inequality Database.” Social Science Quarterly 90(2): 231–242.
Solt, F.. 2011. “Does economic inequality depress electoral participation? Testing the Schattschneider hypothesis.” Political Behavior 32(2): 285–301.
Sondheimer, R. M., and D. P. Green. 2010. “Using experiments to estimate the effects of education on voter turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 54(1): 174–189.
Soroka, S. N., and C. Wlezien. 2008. “On the limits to inequality in representation.” PS: Political Science & Politics 41(2): 319–327.
Steinbrecher, M., and G. Seeber. 2011. “Inequality and turnout in Europe.” Unpublished manuscript.
Strom, K. 1985. “Party goals and government performance in parliamentary democracies.” The American Political Science Review 79(3): 738–754.
Studlar, D. T., and S. Welch. 1986. “The policy opinions of British nonvoters: A research note.” European Journal of Political Research 14(1–2): 139–148.
Svallfors, S. 1997. “Worlds of welfare and attitudes to redistribution: A comparison of eight western nations.” European Sociological Review 13(3): 283–304.
Tan, A. C. 2009. “The 2008 Taiwan elections: Forward to the past?” Electoral Studies 28(3): 502–506.
Teixeira, R. A. 1992. The disappearing American voter. Washington: Brookings Institution Press.
Tenn, S. 2007. “The effect of education on voter turnout.” Political Analysis 15(4): 446–464.
Teorell, J., Sum, P. and Tobiasen, M. 2007. “Participation and political equality: An assessment of large-scale democracy.” In J. van Deth, J. R. Montero, and A. Westholm (Eds.), Citizenship and involvement in european democracies: A comparative perspective. London: Routledge.
Thaler, R. H., and C. Sunstein. 2009. Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and loss aversion. London: Penguin.
The Comparative Study of Electoral Systems.
2011.
www.cses.org (downloaded in May 2011).
Tichenor, P. J., G. A. Donohue, and C. N. Olien. 1970. “Mass media flow and differential growth in knowledge.” Public Opinion Quarterly 34(2): 159–170.
Tingsten, H. 1937. Political behavior. Totowa, NJ: Bedminster.
Teorell, J.,
M. Samanni,
S. Holmberg, and
B. Rothstein.
2011.
The Quality of Government Dataset, version 6Apr11. University of Gothenburg: The Quality of Government Institute,
http://www.qog.pol.gu.se (downloaded in June 2011).
Tóka, G. 2002. “Voter Inequality, turnout and information effects in a cross-national perspective.” Helen Kellogg Institute Working Paper Series No. 297. Notre Dame, IN.
Tomz, M., and R. P. V. Houweling. 2003. “How does voting equipment affect the racial gap in voided ballots?” American Journal of Political Science 47(1): 46–60.
Topf, R. 1995. “Electoral participation.” In H. D. Klingemann, and D. Fuchs (Eds.), Citizens and the state. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 27–51.
Traugott, M. W., and J. P. Katosh. 1979. “Response validity in surveys of voting behavior.” Public Opinion Quarterly 43(3): 359.
Uhlaner, C. J., B. E. Cain, and D. R. Kiewiet. 1989. “Political participation of ethnic minorities in the 1980s.” Political Behavior 11(3): 195–231.
Ura, J. D., and C. R. Ellis. 2008. “Income, preferences, and the dynamics of policy responsiveness.” PS: Political Science & Politics 41(4): 785–794.
Van der Eijk, C., and M. Van Egmond. 2007. “Political effects of low turnout in national and European elections.” Electoral Studies 26(3): 561–573.
Van Egmond, M. 2003. Rain falls on all of us (but some manage to get more wet than others): Political context and electoral participation. Doctoral dissertation, University of Amsterdam.
Verba, S. 2003. “Would the dream of political equality turn out to be a nightmare?” Perspective on Politics 1(04): 663–679.
Verba, S., and N. H. Nie. 1972. Participation in America: Social equality and political democracy. New York: Harper & Row.
Verba, S., K. L. Schlozman, and H. E. Brady. 1995. Voice and equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Verba, S., N. H. Nie, and J. Kim. 1978. Participation and political equality: A seven-nation comparison. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Visser, J. 2006. “Union membership statistics in 24 countries.” Monthly Labor Review 129(1): 38–49.
Voos, P. B. 2003. “Democracy and industrial relations.” In Proceedings of the Industrial Relations Research Association.
Vowles, J. 2010. “Making a difference? Public perceptions of coalition, single-party, and minority governments.” Electoral Studies 29(3): 370–380.
Warwick, P. V. 2011. “Government intentions and citizen preferences in dynamic perspective.” British Journal of Political Science 41(3): 599–619.
Wattenberg, M. P. 2002. Where have all the voters gone?Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Wattenberg, M. P.. 2006. Is voting for young people?New York: Longman Pub Group.
Western, B., and J. Rosenfeld. 2011. “Unions, norms, and the rise in US wage inequality.” American Sociological Review 76(4): 513–537.
White, S., and I. McAllister. 2007. “Turnout and representation bias in post-communist Europe.” Political Studies 55(3): 586–606.
Wilkinson, R. G. et al. 2009. The spirit level: Why more equal societies almost always do better. London: Allen Lane.
Wolfinger, R. E., and S. J. Rosenstone. 1980. Who votes?Yale: Yale University Press.
Zucco, C. 2007. “Where’s the bias? A reassessment of the Chilean electoral system.” Electoral Studies 26(2): 303–314.
