Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
  • Cited by 50
Publisher:
Cambridge University Press
Online publication date:
November 2015
Print publication year:
2015
Online ISBN:
9781316018804

Book description

This book shows how Rwanda's transitional courts that tried genocide crimes - the gacaca - produced social complicity and cemented authoritarian rule. It is unique for its in-depth investigation of the courts' legal operations: confessions, denunciation, and lay judging, and shows how targeted incentives such as grants of clemency, opportunities for private gain, and career advancement drew the masses into the orbit of the ethnic minority-dominated regime. Using previously untapped data, it illustrates how a decade of mass trials constructed a tacit patronage-driven relationship in which the interests of the citizenry became tied to the authoritarian elite that had discretionary power to grant or withdraw those benefits at will. The operation of law in individual behavior and authoritarian control presented in this volume will be of use to students and scholars in the social sciences, and practitioners interested in criminal law and transitional justice.

Refine List

Actions for selected content:

Select all | Deselect all
  • View selected items
  • Export citations
  • Download PDF (zip)
  • Save to Kindle
  • Save to Dropbox
  • Save to Google Drive

Save Search

You can save your searches here and later view and run them again in "My saved searches".

Please provide a title, maximum of 40 characters.
×

Contents

  • Part I - Clientelist and Authoritarian Legacies
    pp 45-92
  • 1 - A History of Clientelism in Rwanda
    pp 47-70
  • 2 - The RPF: An Unrivaled Patron
    pp 71-92

Bibliography

Afshari, Reza. 2002. “Tortured Confessions: Prisons and Public Recantations in Modern Iran (review).” Human Rights Quarterly 24 (1): 290297.
Albert, Ethel M. 1971. “Women of Burundi: A Study of Social Values.” In Women of Tropical Africa, ed. Paulme, D.. Berkeley: University of California Press: 179215.
Anderson, Peter. 2009. “Singling out Victims: Denunciation and Collusion in the Post-Civil War Francoist Repression in Spain, 1939–1945.” European History Quarterly 39(1): 726.
Ansoms, An. 2009. “Re-engineering Rural Society: The Visions and Ambitions of the Rwandan Elite.African Affairs 108(431): 289309.
Autessere, Severine. 2010. The Trouble with the Congo: Local Violence and the Failure of International Peacebuilding. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Backer, David. 2009. “Cross-National Comparative Analysis.” In Assessing the Impact of Transitional Justice: Challenges for Empirical Research, eds. van der Merwe, Hugo, Baxter, Victoria, and Chapman, Audrey. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press: 23–72.
Baker, Bruce. 2008. “Beyond the Tarmac Road: Local Forms of Policing in Sierra Leone and Rwanda.” Review of African Political Economy 35(118): 555570.
Beitz, Charles. 1980. “Tacit Consent and Property Rights.” Political Theory 8(4): 487502.
Bennett, John. 1979. “A Note on Locke’s Theory of Tacit Consent.” The Philosophical Review 88(2): 224234.
Bensch, Gunther, Kluve, Jochen and Peters, Jörg. 2011. “Impacts of Rural Electrification in Rwanda.” Journal of Development Effectiveness 3(4): 567588.
Benson, Michelle, and Rochon, Thomas. 2004. “Interpersonal Trust and the Magnitude of Protest: A Micro and Macro Level Approach.” Comparative Political Studies 37(4): 435457.
Booth, David, and Golooba-Mutebi, Frederick. 2012. “Developmental Patrimonialism? The Case of Rwanda.” African Affairs 111 (444): 379403.
Bossy, John. 1975. “The Social History of Confession in the Age of Reformation.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 25: 2138.
Bratton, Michael, and van de Walle, Nicolas. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brownlee, Jason. 2007. Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Browning, Christopher. 1992. Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. New York: Harper Perennial.
Bunce, Valerie. 1999. Subversive Institutions: The Design and Destruction of Socialism and the State. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Burnet, Jennie. 2008. “The Injustice of Local Justice: Truth, Reconciliation and Revenge in Rwanda.” Genocide Studies and Prevention 3(2): 173193.
Burnett, Amy Nelson. 1991. “Church Discipline and Moral Reformation in the Thought of Martin Bucer.” Sixteenth Century Journal 22 (3): 439456.
Butler, Judith. 1995. “Conscience Doth Make Subjects of Us All.” Yale French Studies (88): 626.
Candel, Ingrid, Merckelback, Harald, Loyen, Sylvie, and Reyskens, Hanne. 2005. “I Hit The Shift-Key and Then the Computer Crashed: Children and False Admissions.” Personality and Individual Differences 38 (6): 13811387.
Cantrell, P. 2007. “The Anglican Church of Rwanda: Domestic Agendas and International Linkages.” Journal of Modern African Studies 45(3): 333-354.
Cassell, Paul G. 1998. “Protecting the Innocent from False Confessions and Lost Confessions: And from ‘Miranda.’” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 88 (2): 497556.
Chakravarty, Anuradha. 2012. “‘Partially trusting’ Field Relationships: Opportunities and Constraints of Fieldwork in Rwanda’s Postconflict SettingField Methods 24 (3): 251271.
Chakravarty, Anuradha. 2007. “Inter-ethnic Marriages, the Survival of Women, and the Logics of Genocide in Rwanda” Genocide Studies and Prevention 2 (3): 235–248.
Chakravarty, Anuradha. 2006. “Gacaca Courts in Rwanda: Explaining Divisions within the Human Rights Community” Yale Journal of International Affairs 1 (2): 132–145.
Chandra, Kanchan. 2004. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Chrétien, Jean Pierre. 1995. Les médias du Genocide. Paris: Karthala Press.
Chrétien, Jean Pierre. 1985. “Hutu et Tutsi au Rwanda et au Burundi.” In Au Coeur de l’Ethnie: Ethnies, Tribalisme et état en Afrique, eds. Amselle, Jean-Loup and M’Bokolo, Elikia. Paris: Éditions la Découverte: 129165.
Clark, Phil. 2010a. The Gacaca Courts: Post-Genocide Justice and Reconciliation in Rwanda. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Clark, Phil. 2010b. “Gacaca: Rwanda’s Experiment in Community-Based Justice for Genocide Crimes Comes to a Close.” Foreign Policy Digest. April.
Clark, Phil. 2005. “When the Killers Go Home: Local Justice in Rwanda.” Dissent. 52 (3): 14–21.
Cochrane, Arthur C. 1977. “The Formula of Concord: Quadricentennial Essays.The Sixteenth Century Journal 8(4): 6183.
Cohen, David. 2006. “Transitional Justice in Divided Germany after 1945.” In Retribution and Reparation in the Transition to Democracy, ed. Elster, Jon. New York: Cambridge University Press: 5988.
Coleman, J. S. 1990. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
Connelly, John. 1996. “The Uses of Volkgemeinschaft: Letters to the NSDAP Kreisleitung Eisenach, 1939–1940.” Journal of Modern History 68(4): 899930.
Conway, Paul. 2011. “Righteous Hutus: Can Stories of Courageous Rescuers Help in Rwanda’s Reconciliation Process?International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 3(7): 116123.
Conquest, Robert. 2008 The Great Terror: A Reassessment. 40th Anniversary Edition, New York: Oxford University Press.
Corey, A., and Joireman, S.. 2004. “Retributive Justice: The Gacaca Courts in Rwanda.” African Affairs 103: 7389.
De Beer, Daniel. 1997. Commentary: The Organic Law of 30 August 1996 on the Organization of the Prosecution of Offenses Constituting the Crime of Genocide or Crimes against Humanity. Alter Egaux Editions.
De Lame, Danielle. 2005. A Hill Among a Thousand: Transformations and Ruptures in Rural Rwanda. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Des Forges, Alison. 2011. Defeat Is the Only Bad News: Rwanda under Musinga, 1896–1931. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Digneffe, Francois, Chapaux, Béatrice, Fierens, Jacques et al. 2003. Justice et Gacaca: L’expérience Rwandaise et le génocide. Namur: Presses universitaires de Namur.
Drumbl, Mark. 2004. “Case Note – Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstić.” Melbourne Journal of International Law 5(2). Available at http://www.law.unimelb.edu.au/mjil/issues/issue-archive/volume-5-2
Drumbl, Mark. 2003. “Juridical and Jurisdictional Disconnects.” Working Paper 02-02, Public Law and Legal Theory Research Paper Series, Washington and Lee University Law School.
Drumbl, Mark. 2000. “Punishment, Postgenocide: From Guilt to Shame to Civis in Rwanda.” New York University Law Review 75: 12211326.
Dudai, Ron. 2012. “Informers and the Transition in Northern Ireland.British Journal of Criminology 52: 3254.
Elder, Sace. 2006. “Murder, Denunciation and Criminal Policing in Weimar Berlin.” Journal of Contemporary History 41(3): 401419.
Eltringham, Nigel. 2004. Accounting for Horror: Post-genocide debates in Rwanda. London: Pluto Press.
Erny, Pierre. 1994. Rwanda 1994. Paris: L’Harmattan.
Fierens, Jacques. 2005. “Gacaca Courts: Between Fantasy and Reality.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 3: 896919.
Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2005. “A Little Swine.” London Review of Books 27(21): 36.
Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 1996. “Supplicants and Citizens: Public Letter Writing in Soviet Russia in the 1930s.” Slavic Review 55(1): 78105.
Fitzpatrick, Sheila, and Gellately, Robert. 1996. “Introduction to the Practices of Denunciation in Modern European History.” Journal of Modern History 68(4): 747767.
Fletcher, Laurel, and Weinstein, Harvey. 2002. “Violence and Social Repair: Rethinking the Contribution of Justice to Reconciliation.” Human Rights Quarterly 24: 573639.
Frei, Norbert. 2002. Adenauer’s Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration, trans. Joel Gelb. New York: Columbia University Press.
Fogg, Shannon. 2003. “Denunciations, Community Outsiders, and Material Shortages in Vichy France.” Proceedings of the Western Society for French History 31: 271289.
Fujii, Lee Ann. 2009. Killing Neighbors: Webs of Violence in Rwanda. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Fujii, Lee Ann. 2004. “Transforming the Moral Landscape: The Diffusion of a Genocidal Norm in Rwanda.” Journal of Genocide Research 6(1): 99114.
Gambetta, Diego, ed. 1988. Trust: Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations. New York: Blackwell.
Gandhi, Jennifer. 2008. Political Institutions under Dictatorship. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gandhi, Jennifer, and Przeworski, Adam. 2006. “Cooperation, Cooptation, and Rebellion under Dictatorships.Economics and Politics 18(1): 126.
Gasana, James. 1994. “La guerre, la paix et la démocratie au Rwanda.” In Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, ed. Guichaoua, A.. Lille: Université des Sciences et Technologies.
George, Alexander, and Bennett, Andrew. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gibson, James, and Gouws, Amanda. 1999. “Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa: Attributions of Blame and the Struggle over Apartheid.” American Political Science Review 93(3): 501517.
Goodare, Julian. 1998. “Women and the Witch-hunt in Scotland.” Social History 23 (3): 288308.
Gourevitch, Philip. 1998. We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families. New York: Picador.
Gravel, Pierre. 1967. “The Transfer of Cows in Gisaka (Rwanda): A Mechanism for Recording Social Relationships.” American Anthropologist 69 (3–4): 322331.
Gready, Paul. 2010. “‘You’re Either with Us or against Us’: Civil Society and Policy Making in Post-Genocide Rwanda.” African Affairs 109(437): 637657.
Grzymala-Busse, Anna. 2010. “The Best Laid Plans: The Impact of Informal Rules on Formal Institutions in Transitional Regimes.” Studies in Comparative International Development 45: 311333.
Guest, David. 1998. “Is the Psychological Contract Worth Taking Seriously?Journal of Organizational Behavior 19: 649664.
Gupta, Dipak. 1990. The Economics of Political Violence: The Effect of Political Instability on Economic Growth. New York: Greenwood Publishing.
Hale, Henry. 2011. “Formal Constitutions in Informal Politics: Institutions and Democratization in Eurasia.” World Politics 63(4): 581617.
Hale, Henry. 2007. “Correlates of Clientelism: Political Economy, Politicized Ethnicity, and Post-Communist Transition.” In Patrons, Clients, and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition, eds. Kitschelt, Herbert and Wilkinson, Steven. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 227250.
Hall, Peter, and Taylor, Rosemary. 1996. “Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms.” Political Studies XLIV: 936957.
Hatzfeld, Jean. 2005. Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak, trans. Coverdale, Linda. New York: Picador.
Helmke, Gretchen, and Levitsky, Steven, eds. 2006. Informal Institutions and Democracy: Lessons from Latin America. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Helmke, Gretchen, and Levitsky, Steven. 2004. “Informal Institutions and Comparative Politics: A Research Agenda.” Perspectives on Politics 2(4): 725740.
Hepworth, M., and Turner, B.. 1979. “Confession, Guilt, and Responsibility.British Journal of Law and Sociology 6(2): 219234.
Herz, John. 1948. “The Fiasco of Denazification in Germany.Political Science Quarterly 63(4): 569594.
Holland, Nancy. 2002–2003. “‘Truth as Force’: Michel Foucault on Religion, State Power, and the Law.Journal of Law and Religion 18(1): 7997.
Howe, Gerard and McKay, Andrew. 2007. “Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Assessing Chronic Poverty: The Case of Rwanda.” World Development 35 (2): 197211
Ingelaere, Bert. 2014. “What’s on a Peasant’s Mind? Experiencing RPF State Reach and Overreach in Post-Genocide Rwanda (2000–2010).” Journal of East African Studies 8(2): 214230.
Ingelaere, Bert. 2010a. “Do We Understand Life after Genocide? Center and Periphery in the Construction of Knowledge in Post-Genocide Rwanda.African Studies Review 53(1): 4159.
Ingelaere, Bert. 2010b. “Peasants, Power and Ethnicity: A Bottom-Up Perspective on Rwanda’s Political Transition.” African Affairs 109(435): 273292.
Ingelaere, Bert. 2009. “Does the Truth Pass across the Fire without Burning? Locating the Short Circuit in Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts.Journal of Modern African Studies 47(4): 507528.
Ingelaere, Bert. 2008. “The Gacaca Courts in Rwanda.” In Traditional Justice and Reconciliation Mechanisms after Violent Conflict: Learning from African Experiences, eds. Huyse, L. and Salter, M.. Stockholm: International Idea: 2559.
Jefremovas, Villia. 2002. Brickyards to Graveyards: From Production to Genocide in Rwanda. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Jefremovas, Villia. 2000. “Treacherous Waters.” Africa 70(2): 298308.
Jefremovas, Villia. 1995. “Acts of Human Kindness: Tutsi, Hutu, and the Genocide.” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 23(2): 2831.
Kassin, Saul. 2008. “Psychology of Confessions.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 4: 193217.
Kassin, Saul M., Meissner, Christian A., and Norwick, Rebecca J.. 2005. “‘I’d Know a False Confession If I Saw One’: A Comparative Study of College Students and Police Investigators.” Law and Human Behavior 29(2): 211227.
Kassin, Saul, and Gudjonsson, Gisli. 2004. “The Psychology of Confessions: A Review of the Literature and Issues.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 5 (2):3367.
Katzenstein, Peter. 1996. Cultural Norms and National Security: Police and Military in Postwar Japan. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
King, Elisabeth. 2009. “From Data Problems to Data Points: Challenges and Opportunities of Research in Post-Genocide Rwanda.” African Studies Review 52: 12748.
Kirchheimer, Otto. 1961. Political Justice: The Use of Legal Procedure for Political Ends. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Kitschelt, Herbert. 2007. “The Demise of Clientelism in Affluent Capitalist Democracies.” In Patrons, Clients, and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition, eds. Kitschelt, Herbert and Wilkinson, Steven. New York: Cambridge University Press: 298321.
Kuperman, Alan. 2004. “Provoking Genocide: A Revised History of the Rwandan Patriotic Front.” Journal of Genocide Research 6(1): 6184.
Kuran, Timur. 1991. “Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolution of 1989.World Politics. 44(1): 748.
Lemarchand, Rene. 1998. “US Policy in the Great Lakes: A Critical Perspective.” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 26(1): 4146.
Lemarchand, Rene. 1995. “Rwanda: The Rationality of Genocide.” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 23(2): 811.
Lemarchand, Rene. 1977. “Rwanda.” In African Kingships in Perspective, ed. Lemarchand, R.. London: Frank Cass and Co.: 6792.
Lemarchand, Rene. 1972. “Political Clientelism and Ethnicity in Tropical Africa: Competing Solidarities in Nation Building.American Political Science Review 66(1): 6890.
Leng, Shao-Chuan. 1981. “Criminal Justice in Post-Mao China: Some Preliminary Observations.” The China Quarterly 87: 440469.
Leo, Richard A., and Ofshe, Richard. 1998. “The Consequences of False Confessions: Deprivations of Liberty and Miscarriages of Justice in the Age of Psychological Interrogation.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 88 (2): 429496.
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Livingston, Steven. 2013. Africa’s Information Revolution: Implications for Crime, Policing, and Citizen Security. Washington DC: Africa Center for Strategic Studies, Research Paper No. 5.
Longman, Timothy. 2010. “Trying Times for Rwanda: Reevaluating Gacaca Courts in Post-Genocide Reconciliation.” Harvard International Review (Summer): 4852.
Longman, Timothy. 2009. Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Longman, Timothy. 1995. “Genocide and Socio-Political change: Massacres in Two Rwandan Villages.” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 23(2): 1821.
Lu, Hong, and Miethe, Terance D.. 2003. “Confessions and Criminal Case Disposition in China.” Law and Society Review 37 (3):549578.
Lucas, Colin. 1996. “The Theory and Practice of Denunciation in the French Revolution.Journal of Modern History 68(4): 768785.
Lyne, Mona. 2007. “Rethinking Economics and Institutions: The Voter’s Dilemma and Democratic Accountability.” In Patrons, Clients, and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition, eds. Kitschelt, Herbert and Wilkinson, Steven. New York: Cambridge University Press: 159181.
Maclean, Lauren. 2010. Informal Institutions and Citizenship in Rural Africa: Risk and Reciprocity in Ghana and Cote d’Ivoire. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Magaloni, Beatriz. 2006. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and its Demise in Mexico. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Magaloni, Beatriz, Diaz-Cayeros, Alberto, and Estevez, Federico. 2007. “Clientelism and Portfolio Diversification.” In Patrons, Clients, and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition, eds. Kitschelt, Herbert and Wilkinson, Steven. New York: Cambridge University Press: 182205.
Malesky, Edmund, and Schuler, Paul. 2010. “Nodding or Needling: Analyzing Delegate Responsiveness in an Authoritarian ParliamentAmerican Political Science Review 104(3): 482502.
Mamdani, Mahmood. 2001. When Victims become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Mann, Michael. 1988. States, War and Capitalism: Studies in Political Sociology. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell
Megwalu, Amaka, and Loizides, Neophytos. 2010. “Dilemmas of Justice and Reconciliation: Rwandans and the Gacaca Courts.” African Journal of International and Comparative Law 18: 124.
Meyerstein, Ariel. 2007. “Between Law and Culture: Rwanda’s Gacaca and Postcolonial Legality.” Law and Social Inquiry 32(2): 467508.
Mgbako, Chi. 2005. “Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda.” Harvard Human Rights Journal 18: 201224.
Morin, A. S. 1870. Confession in the Church of Rome: What It Is and What It Does. Bristol Selected Pamphlets. University of Bristol Library.
Morrill, Constance. 2006. “Showbusiness and ‘Lawfare’ in Rwanda: Twelve Years After the Genocide.Dissent (summer): 14–20.
Muller, Gerhard, and Bouman, Herbert J. A.. 1977. “Alliance and Confession: The Theological-Historical Development and Ecclesiastical-Political Significance of Reformation Confessions.” The Sixteenth Century Journal 8(4): 123140.
Mutisi, Martha. 2012. “Local Conflict Resolution in Rwanda: The Case of Abunzi Mediators.” In Integrating Traditional and Modern Conflict Resolution: Experiences from Selected Cases in Eastern and the Horn of Africa, eds. Mutisi, Martha and Sansculotte-Greenidge, Kwesi. South Africa: African Center for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD) Special Issue Publication. Africa Dialog Monograph Series 2: 4174.
Nalepa, Monika. 2010. Skeletons in the Closet: Transitional Justice in Post-Communist Europe. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Newbury, Catharine. 1998. “Ethnicity and the Politics of History in Rwanda.” Africa Today 45(1): 724.
Newbury, Catharine. 1988. The Cohesion of Oppression: Citizenship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860–1960. New York: Columbia University Press.
Newbury, Catharine. 1980. “Ubureetwa and Thangata: Catalysts to Peasant Political Consciousness in Rwanda and Malawi.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 14(1): 97111.
Newbury, Catharine, and Newbury, David. 1999. “A Catholic Mass in Kigali: Contested Views of the Genocide and Ethnicity in Rwanda.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 33(2/3): 292328.
Newbury, David. 2002. “Writing Royal History: Is Dynastic History Equivalent to the History of a Kingdom?African Studies Review 45(1): 140149.
Newbury, David, and Newbury, Catharine. 2000. “Bringing the Peasants Back in: Agrarian Themes in the Construction and Corrosion of Statist Historiography in Rwanda.” The American Historical Review 105(3): 832877.
Niesen, Peter. 2010. “Political Party Bans in Rwanda 1994–2003: Three Narratives of Justification.” Democratization 17(4): 709729.
Nkundabagenzi, Felix. 1961. Le Rwanda Politique (1958–1960). Brussels: Centre de Recherche et d’Information Socio-Politiques (CRISP).
North, Douglass. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Osgood, D. Wayne, Gruber, Enid, Archer, Mark, and Newcomb, Theodore. 1985. “Autonomy for Inmates: Counterculture or Cooptation?Criminal Justice and Behavior 12(1): 7189.
Otunnu, O. 1999. “A Historical Analysis of the Invasion by the Rwandan Patriotic Army.” In The Path of a Genocide: The Rwanda Crisis from Uganda to Zaire, eds. Adelman, H. and Suhrke, A.. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
Packer, George. 2002. “Justice on a Hill: Genocide Trials in Rwanda.” Dissent 49(2): 5972.
Payne, Leigh. 2008. Unsettling Accounts: Neither Truth nor Reconciliation in Confessions of State Violence. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Pepinsky, Thomas. 2007. “Durable Authoritarianism as a Self-Enforcing Coalition.” Paper presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Chicago.
Pottier, Johan. 2002. Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Power, Samantha. 2003. “Rwanda: The Two Faces of Justice.” The New York Review of Books 50 (1): 47–50.
Prunier, Gerard. 1996. Rwanda: 1959–1996: Histoire d’un genocide. Paris: Dagorno.
Prunier, Gerard. 1995. The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide. New York: Columbia University Press.
Przeworski, Adam. 1986. “Problems in the Study of Transition to Democracy.” In Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives, eds. O’Donnell, Guillermo, Schmitter, C., and Whitehead, L.. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Przeworski, Adam, Alvarez, Michael, Cheibub, Jose, and Limongi, Fernando. 1996. “What Makes Democracies Endure?Journal of Democracy 7(1): 3955.
Purdeková, Andrea. 2011. “‘Even if I Am Not Here, There Are So Many Eyes’: Surveillance and State Reach in Rwanda.Journal of Modern African Studies 49(3): 475497.
Reed, W. C. 1996. “Exile, Reform and the Rise of the Rwandan Patriotic Front.Journal of Modern African Studies 34(3): 479–501.
Rettig, Max. 2008. “Gacaca: Truth, Justice, and Reconciliation in Post-Conflict Rwanda?African Studies Review 51: 2550.
Reuter, Ora John, and Robertson, Graeme. 2015. “Legislatures, Cooptation and Social Protest in Contemporary Authoritarian RegimesJournal of Politics 77(1): 235–248.
Reyntjens, Filip. 2011. “Constructing the Truth, Dealing with Dissent, Domesticating the World: Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda.” African Affairs 110(438): 134.
Reyntjens, Filip. 2004. “Rwanda, Ten Years On: From Genocide to Dictatorship.” African Affairs 103: 177210.
Reyntjens, Filip. 1999. “A Dubious Discourse on Rwanda.” African Affairs 98(390): 119122.
Reyntjens, Filip. 1996. “Constitution Making in Situations of Extreme Crisis: The case of Rwanda and Burundi.” Journal of African Law 40(2): 234242.
Reyntjens, Filip. 1994. L’Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise. Rwanda, Burundi: 1988–1994. Paris: Karthala.
Reyntjens, Filip. 1990. “Le Gacaca ou la justice du gazon au Rwanda.” Politique Africaine 40: 3141.
Rickett, Allyn. 1971. “Voluntary Surrender and Confession in Chinese Law: The Problem of Continuity.Journal of Asian Studies 30(4): 797814.
Sarkin, Jeremy. 1999. “The Necessity and Challenges of Establishing a Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Rwanda.” Human Rights Quarterly 21(3): 767823.
Schabas, William. 2005. “Genocide Trials and Gacaca Courts.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 3: 879895.
Scott, James. 1985. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Scott, James. 1972. “Patron-Client Politics and Political Change in Southeast Asia.” American Political Science Review 66(1): 91113.
Scott, Robert E., and Stuntz, William J.. 1992. “Plea Bargaining as Contract.” Yale Law Journal 101 (8): 19091968.
Sebasoni, Servilien. 2000. Les Origines du Rwanda. Paris: L’Harmattan.
Selznick, Philip. 1966. TVA and the Grassroots. New York: Harper Torchbooks.
Shih, Victor. 2008. “‘Nauseating’ Displays of Loyalty: Monitoring the Factional Bargain through Ideological Campaigns in China.” The Journal of Politics 70(4): 116.
Shyaka, Anastase. 2004. “The Rwandan Conflict: Origin, Development, Exit Strategies.” National Unity and Reconciliation Commission. Kigali, Rwanda.
Sibomana, Andre. 1999. Hope for Rwanda, trans. Tertsakian, Carina. New York: Pluto Press.
Slater, Daniel. 2010. Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sommers, Marc. 2012. Stuck: Rwandan Youth and the Struggle for Adulthood. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
Strassfeld, Robert. 1997. “Robert McNamara and the Art and Law of Confession: ‘A Simple Desultory Philippic.’” Duke Law Journal 47(3): 491566.
Straus, Scott. 2006. The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Straus, Scott. 2004. “How Many Perpetrators Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? An Estimate.Journal of Genocide Research 6(1): 8598.
Straus, Scott. 2001. “Contested Meanings and Conflicting Imperatives: A Conceptual Analysis of Genocide.” Journal of Genocide Research 3(3): 349–375.
Svolik, Milan. 2012. The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Taku, Charles. 2010. “The Gacaca Courts and Confessions.” Unpublished manuscript.
Teitel, Ruti. 2000. Transitional Justice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Tertsakian, Carina. 2008. Le Chateau: The Lives of Prisoners in Rwanda. London: Arves Books.
Thomson, Susan. 2013. Whispering Truth to Power: Everyday Resistance to Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Thomson, Susan. 2011. “Re-education for Reconciliation: Participant Observations on Ingando.” In Remaking Rwanda: State Building and Human Rights after Mass Violence, eds. Straus, Scott and Waldorf, Lars. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press: 331339.
Thomson, Susan. 2010Whispering Truth to Power: The Everyday Resistance of Rwandan Peasants to Post-Genocide Reconciliation.” African Affairs 110(440): 439456.
Thomson, Susan. 2007. “The Unity-Generating Machine: State Power and Gacaca Trials in Post-Genocide Rwanda.” Paper presented at the Canadian Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Saskatchewan.
Tsai, Lily. 2007. Accountability Without Democracy: Solidary Groups and Public Goods Provision in Rural China. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Twagiramungu, Faustin. 2003. “La Révolution Rwandaise.” Available at twagiramungu.net (accessed November 15, 2005).
Tyler, T., and Huo, J.. 2002. Trust in the Law: Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Uvin, Peter. 2003. “Wake Up! Some Personal Reflections and Policy Proposals.” Unpublished draft, Tufts University.
Uvin, Peter. 2001. “Difficult Choices in the New Post-Conflict Agenda: The International Community in Rwanda after the Genocide.” Third World Quarterly 22 (2): 177189.
Uvin, Peter. 2000. “The Introduction of a Modernized Gacaca for Judging Suspects of Participation in the Genocide and the Massacres of 1994 in Rwanda.” Discussion paper prepared for the Belgian Secretary of State for Development Cooperation.
Uvin, Peter. 1998. Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in Rwanda. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press.
Uvin, Peter. 1997. “Prejudice, Crisis, and Genocide in Rwanda.” African Studies Review 40(2): 91115.
Vansina, Jan. 2004. Antecedents to Modern Rwanda: The Nyiginya Kingdom. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Verwimp, Philip. 2003. Development and Genocide in Rwanda: A Political Economy Analysis of Peasants and Power under the Habyarimana Regime. Doctoral Dissertation no. 170, Catholic University Leuven.
Vidal, Claudine. 1991. Sociologie des Passions. Paris: Karthala.
Vidal, Claudine. 1969. “Le Rwanda des anthropologues ou le fétichisme de la vache.” Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 9(3): 384481.
Voegelin, Eric. 1946. “Bakunin’s Confession.” The Journal of Politics 8(1): 2443.
Vogt, Timothy. 2000. Denazification in Soviet-Occupied Germany: Brandenburg, 1945–1948. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Waldorf, Lars. 2010. “‘Like Jews Waiting for Jesus’: Posthumous Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda.” In Localizing Transitional Justice: Interventions and Priorities after Mass Violence, eds. Shaw, Rosalind, Waldorf, Lars, and Hazan, Pierre. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press: 183204.
Waldorf, Lars. 2006. “Mass Justice for Mass Atrocity: Rethinking Local Justice as Transitional Justice.” Temple Law Review 79: 192.
Waugh, Colin. 2004. Paul Kagame and Rwanda: Power, Genocide, and the Rwandan Patriotic Front. Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Co.
Wedeen, Lisa. 1999. Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wierzynska, Aneta. 2004. “Consolidating Democracy through Transitional Justice: Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts.” New York University Law Review 79: 19341970.
Wright, Teresa. 2010. Accepting Authoritarianism: State-Society Relations in China’s Reform Era. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.

Media Sources

Agence France Presse. 2006. “L’ex-président Bizimungu, en prison, demande à être gracié.” April 21.
Bloomberg Data for the Most Heavily Policed Countries. Available at http://www.bloomberg.com/visual-data/best-and-worst//most-heavily-policed-countries. Last accessed Nov. 10, 2014.
CNN. 2003. “Kagame declares victory in Rwanda.” August 25. Available at http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/africa/08/25/rwanda.election/.
Delany, Max, and Baldauf, Scott. 2010. “Kagame sees ‘no reason’ why he shouldn’t win Rwanda election.” The Christian Science Monitor, August 9.
The Independent. 2012. “Out of Session: Gacaca Courts Formally Close as President Kagame Scoffs at ICTR.” June 29.
The Independent. 2010. “Rwanda is not ready for the medicine of democracy, says Kagame.” May 29.
Jeune Afrique/L’Intelligent. 2005. “Pourquoi la France nous hait.” Interview by Francois Soudain. No. 2302, February 20–26.
The Nation. 2003. “Letter from Rwanda.” Victoria Brittain. September 1.
The New Times. 2014. “Can DASSO succeed where LDF failed?” Jean-Pierre Bucyensenge. September 6.
The New Times. 2013. “Over Rwf 40 billion saved through TIG.” Jean de la Croix Tabaro. March 24.
The New Times. 2012. “Insight- President Paul Kagame reminisces liberation journey.” December 20.
The New Times. 2011. “Community Policing Committees Given Bicycles.” October 30.
The New Times. 2010a. “Ntawangundi loses appeal.” Edmund Kagire. April 17.
The New Times. 2010b. “Eastern province celebrates RPF victory.” Edmund Kagire. September 13.
The New Times. 2009. “Former MP receives 19 years for genocide.” Stevenson Mugisha. March 14.
The New Times. 2008a. “Genocide Ideology: MPs focus on southern province.” James Buyinza. May 2.
The New Times. 2008b. “Genocide suspect hands self over after 12 yrs—Southern Province.” Daniel Sabiti. February 29.
The New Times. 2008c. “Gacaca judges given bicycles: Eastern Province.” April 10.
The New Times. 2007. “Burera hires prisoners to help both community development and reconciliation.” Bonny Mukombozi. November 12.
The New Times. 2006a. “Inyangamugayo’s Home Burnt.” Willy Mugenzi. September 24.
The New Times. 2006b. “The Rwandan Dilemma vis-à-vis the Genocide.” Frank Rusagara. September 17.
The New Times. 2006c. “Gacaca trials start en masse tomorrow.” James Munyaneza. July 14.
The New Times. 2006d. “Prisons boast of Frw 38 million profit.” Muliisa Richard and Stevenson Nzaramba. April 30.
The New Times. 2006e. “Evaluate leaders- Mayor.” James Tasamba. June 20.
The New Times. 2006f. “MP unhappy about House position over FARG report.” James Munyaneza. June 9.
The New Times. 2006g. “Mayor’s performance contracts signed.” Steven Baguma. April 9.
The New Times. 2006h. “EC gives update on local elections.” Eleneus Akanga and Joe Rwesa. March 28.
The New Times. 2006i. “In Rwanda, suicides haunt search for justice.” March 23.
The New Times. 2005a. “The Ideology of Rwandanicity.” Frank Rusagara. February 14, 21.
The New Times. 2005b. “Focus on Gacaca.” March 9–10.
Reuters. 2006. “Jailed Rwandan ex-President pleads for mercy.” May 8.
Rutazibwa, Privat. 1996. “Cet ethnisme sans fin.” Informations Rwandaises et Internationales 5 (November–December).
The Rwanda Focus. 2010. “Special 2010 Presidential Election Campaigns: ‘Never change a winning team,’ Kagame tells thousands.” August 4.
Rwanda News Agency. 2008. “UN Report on ‘Part of the West’s Conspiracy against Rwanda.’” December 15.
Smith, Stephen. 2011. “Rwanda in Six Scenes.London Review of Books 33(6) March 17.

Government and NGO Reports

African Rights. 2003. Gacaca Justice: A Shared Responsibility. Kigali.
African Rights. 2002. Tribute to Courage. London.
African Rights. 2000. Confessing to Genocide: Responses to Rwanda’s Genocide Law. Kigali.
African Rights. 1995. Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance. London.
Amnesty International. 2010. Safer to Stay Silent: The Chilling Effect of Rwanda’s Laws on ‘Genocide Ideology’ and ‘Sectarianism.’ London.
Amnesty International. 2004. Deeper into the Abyss: Waging War on Civil Society. July 6. London.
Article 19. 1996. Broadcasting Genocide. London.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2008–2010. Monitoring of the Gacaca Courts: Judgment Phase. Analytical Report 5.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2009. Monitoring of the Gacaca Courts: Judgment Phase. Analytical Report 4.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2008. Gacaca Observation Report #11.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2006–2007. Monitoring of the Gacaca Courts: Judgment Phase. Analytical Report 3.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2005a. Monitoring of the Gacaca Courts: Judgment Phase. Analytical Report 1.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2005b. Avant-project d’amendement de la loi organique no. 16/2004 du 19 Juin 2004 (with Danish Center for Human Rights, Penal Reform International and Réseau Citoyens Network). Kigali. October 17.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2004a. Training of the Trainers Manual. (USAID/ASF).
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2004b. Training of the Trainers Report..
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2003a. Les Juridictions Gacaca: Rapport d’observation. Kigali city, Kicukiro district, Kagarama sector, Nyanza cell. February 14–28, March 7.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2003b. Les Juridictions Gacaca: Rapport d’observation. Ruhengeri province, Bukonya district, Mataba sector, Gikombe cell. March 26.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2003c. Les Juridictions Gacaca: Rapport d’observation. Kibuye province, Gisunzu district, Mushubati sector, Nyakabande cell. February 21.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2003d. Les Juridictions Gacaca: Rapport d’observation. Kibuye province, Gisunzu district, Mushubati sector, Nyakabuye cell. March 14.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2003e. Les Juridictions Gacaca: Rapport d’observation. Gitarama province, Kabagari district, Nkomero sector, Ruhosha cell. March 25.
Avocats Sans Frontières (ASF). 2003f. Les Juridictions Gacaca: Rapport d’observation. Kibungo province, Birenga district, Rubona sector, Nyamigina cell. May 13.
Catholic Church. 1999. Sinode igeze he mu madiyosezi yose [How Far Is the Synod in All Dioceses?] (April 12–15) Report on symposium, Kigali.
European Union. 2008. Republic of Rwanda, Legislative Elections to the Chamber of Deputies 15–18 September 2008 (Final Report).
European Union. 2003. Mission d’observation électorale de l’Union Européenne, Rwanda. Election présidentielle 25 août 2003. Elections législatives 29 et 30 Septembre. (October 2, Final Report).
Front Line Rwanda. 2005. Disappearances, arrests, threats, intimidation, and co-optation of human rights defenders 2001–2004. Available at http://www.frontlinedefenders.org/files/en/FrontLineRwandaReport.pdf (last accessed March 8, 2007).
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2012. Summary of the Report Presented at the Closing of Gacaca Courts Activities. National Service of Gacaca Jurisdictions (SNJG). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2009–2013. The Strategic Plan for the RNP. Rwanda National Police (RNP). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2010a. Rwanda Reconciliation Barometer. National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2010b. Challenges Facing Local Governments in Rwanda. Rwandese Association of Local Government Authorities (RALGA). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2009. Rwanda: State of Environment and Outlook Report. Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2008a. Internal Security Policy. Ministry of Internal Security (MININTER). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2008b. Organic Law No. 13/2008 modifying and complementing Organic Law No. 16/2004 of 19/6/2004 establishing the organization, competence and functioning of Gacaca Courts charged with prosecuting and trying the perpetrators of the crime of genocide and other crimes against humanity, committed between October 1, 1990 and December 31, 1994 as modified and complemented to date. Official Gazette, Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2003–2008. Parliamentary Commission Reports on Genocide Ideology. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2007a. The National Policy of Unity and Reconciliation (Report). NURC. August. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2007b. Achievements made by Gacaca Courts during Pilot Phase. SNJG. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2007c. Organic Law No. 10/2007 modifying and complementing Organic Law No. 16/2004 of 19/6/2004 establishing the organization, competence and functioning of Gacaca Courts charged with prosecuting and trying the perpetrators of the crime of genocide and other crimes against humanity, committed between October 1, 1990 and December 31, 1994 as modified and complemented to date. Official Gazette, Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2004a. Document sur l’état d’avancement des activités des Juridictions Gacaca des Cellules opérationnelles et programmes d’activités à venir. SNJG. January 21. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2004b. Violence Against Women. Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion (with USAID and IRC). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2004c. Le Processus de Decentralisation et de Democratisation au Rwanda: Sondage d’Opinion (NURC, with DFID, SIDA, and IRC). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2004d. District Development Report: Kanombe, Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2004e. Gacaca Handbook: Program of Collecting Information. [Gahunda yo gukusanya amakuru akenewe mu nkiko gacaca.] SNJG. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2004f. Gacaca Report for Kigali. [Inkiko Gacaca mu mujyi wa Kigali]. SNJG. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2004g. Système scientifique de collecte, d’acheminement et de classement éléctronique des informations collectées au cours des séances des Juridictions Gacaca (provisional report). SNJG. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2004h. Organic Law No. 16/2004 establishing the organization, competence and functioning of Gacaca Courts charged with prosecuting and trying the perpetrators of the crime of genocide and other crimes against humanity, committed between October 1st 1990 and December 31 1994. Official Gazette, Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2003a. Opinion Survey on Participation in Gacaca and National Reconciliation. NURC. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2003b. Strategic Plan of Gacaca Process 2004–2006. SNJG. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2003c. Evaluation of the Gacaca Promotional Campaign (with Johns Hopkins University). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2003d. Human Rights Report March-June. NHRC, Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2002–2004. Weekly and Monthly Reports. SNJG. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2002a. Activity Report of Gacaca Jurisdictions. SNJG. October. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2002b. Formation des Agents Decentralises intervenant dans le processus de mise en place des Juridictions Gacaca au Rwanda. SNJG (with ASF). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2002c. Report of the National Summit on Unity and Reconciliation. NURC. October 26–28. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2002d. Indicateurs de Développement du Rwanda. Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2002e. Third general census of population and housing. MINECOFIN (National Census Service) Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2001a. Evaluation Report. NURC. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2001b. Annual Report. National Human Rights Commission (NHRC). Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 2001c. Organic Law No. 40/2000 Setting Up Gacaca Jurisdictions and Organizing Prosecutions for Offences Constituting the Crime of Genocide or Crimes against Humanity Committed Between October 1, 1990 and December 31, 1994. Official Gazette, Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 1999–2000. Annual Report of Activities. NURC. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 1999. Report on the reflection meetings May 1998 to March 1999. Office of the President of the Republic. Kigali.
Government of Rwanda (GOR). 1980. ORINFOR and Office of the President. “Entretien du President de la Republique, Son Excellence le General-Major Habyarimana avec les journalistes Africaines.” In Discours, Messages et Entretiens de Son Excellence le General-Major Habyarimana Juvenal. June 2. Kigali.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2011. Justice Compromised: The Legacy of Rwanda’s Community-Based Gacaca Courts. New York.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2008. Law and Reality: Progress in Judicial Reform in Rwanda. New York.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2007. Rwanda: Country summary. New York.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2006. Rwanda: Country summary. New York.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2005. Rwanda: Country summary. New York.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2004. Rwanda: Parliament seeks to abolish rights group. July 2. New York.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2002. World Report. New York.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 1999. Leave None to Tell the Story (by Alison des Forges). New York.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 1995. One year after genocide in Rwanda, crisis continues. HRW/International Federation for Human Rights. April 18. New York.
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2003. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) Prosecutor v. Ferdinand Nahimana, Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza and Hassan Ngeze Case No. 99-52-T--Judgement and Sentence. Available at http://www.unictr.org/sites/unictr.org/files/case-documents/ictr-99-52/trial-judgements/en/031203.pdf
International Crisis Group (ICG). 2002. Rwanda at the end of the transition. November 13. Brussels.
International Crisis Group (ICG). 2001. “Consensual Democracy” in Post-Genocide Rwanda: Evaluating the March 2001 District Elections. October 9. Brussels.
Lawyers Committee for Human Rights. 1995. What is a Fair Trial? A Basic Guide to Legal Standards and Practice. New York.
Ligue des Droits de la Personne dans la Région des Grands Lacs (LDGL). 2001. La problématique de la liberté d’expression au Rwanda. December. Kigali.
Ligue Rwandaise pour la Promotion et la Défense des Droits de l’Homme (LIPRODHOR). 2002. Rapport d’observations sur les activites des assemblees des juridictions gacaca de cellule. June–July. Kigali.
Organization of African Unity (OAU) Report. 2000. Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide. May 29. Addis Ababa.
Projet d’appui de la société civile au processus gacaca au Rwanda (PAPG). 2003. Rapport d’observations des juridictions gacaca pour le mois de Juillet 2003. Kigali.
Penal Reform International (PRI). 2010. Eight Years On: A Record of Gacaca Monitoring in Rwanda. Kigali.
Penal Reform International (PRI). 2007. Community Service (TIG): Areas of Reflection. March. Kigali.
Penal Reform International (PRI). 2004. Gacaca and Reconciliation: Kibuye Case Study. Kigali.
Penal Reform International (PRI). 2003. Research on the Gacaca: Reports 4 & 5. January and September. Kigali.
Prison Fellowship Rwanda. 2002–2003. Umuvumu Tree Project: Rapport Annuel Année 1. Kigali.
RPF website. 2012. Gacaca Courts Genesis, Implementation, and Achievements. Available at http://rpfinkotanyi.org/en/?gacaca-courts-genesis
Reporters Sans Frontières. 2001. Rwanda: Discreet and Targeted Pressure: President Kagame is a Predator of Press Freedom. November 7. Paris.
UN High Commission for Human Rights. 2010. Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1993–2003: Report of the Mapping Exercise. June. Geneva.
USAID. 2002a. La société civile rwandaise: problèmes et perspectives. (by Eugène Nkubito). Kigali.
USAID. 2002b. Rwanda: Conflict Vulnerability Assessment (prepared by MSI). Washington, DC.
USIP. 1997. Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices Among Inmates of Rwandan Detention Facilities Accused of Crimes of Genocide (by Neil Boisen). Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of State. 2014. Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Rwanda 2013.
U.S. Department of State. 2012. Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Rwanda 2011.
U.S. Department of State. 2011. Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Rwanda 2010.
U.S. Department of State. 2009. Country report on Human Rights Practices: Rwanda 2008.
U.S. Department of State. 2008. Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Rwanda 2007.
U.S. Department of State. 2007. Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Rwanda 2006.
U.S. Department of State. 2001. Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Rwanda 2000.

Metrics

Altmetric attention score

Full text views

Total number of HTML views: 0
Total number of PDF views: 0 *
Loading metrics...

Book summary page views

Total views: 0 *
Loading metrics...

* Views captured on Cambridge Core between #date#. This data will be updated every 24 hours.

Usage data cannot currently be displayed.