Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-b6zl4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-18T16:10:03.829Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Pre-Islamic Oasis Settlements in the Southern Sahara

from Part II - Oasis Origins in the Sahara: A Region-by-Region Survey

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 March 2020

By
Martin Sterry  and
David J. Mattingly
Edited by
Martin Sterry  and
David J. Mattingly
Martin Sterry
Affiliation:
University of Durham
David J. Mattingly
Affiliation:
University of Leicester
Get access

Summary

The southern oases of the Sahara can be split into two broad groups. First, there are a series located in and around the Saharan mountain ranges. From east to west these are: Ennedi, Tibesti, Aïr, Tassili n’Ajjer, Ahaggar and Adrar des Ilforas. These massifs receive higher levels of rainfall than other parts of the Sahara, resulting in seasonal rivers that feed permanent bodies of water (small lakes or pools/gueltas) or that support a high water table beneath the wadi beds. There are still populations of crocodiles living in Ennedi and nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century reports of them also in Ahaggar and Tibesti. However, these areas have traditionally been primarily exploited by pastoralists and they have little suitable land for oasis agriculture and highly variable rainfall. The dynamic wadi systems may also be a factor in the poor preservation of archaeological remains with less sturdy or older constructions either swept away or buried under sediment.

Type
Chapter
Information
Urbanisation and State Formation in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond , pp. 277 - 329
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aroca, A. 1942. Ual el Chebir: L’oasi della redenzione. Milano: Edizioni Alpe.Google Scholar
Bailloud, G. 1969. L’évolution des styles céramiques en Ennedi (République du Tchad). In Mémoires I, Actes du Premier Colloque International d’Archéologie Africaine. Fort Lamy: Institut National Tchadien pour les Sciences Humaines, 31–45.Google Scholar
Bailloud, G., 1997. Art rupestre en Ennedi. Saint-Maur: Éditions Sépia.Google Scholar
Beltrami, V. 1987. Repertorio preistorico-archeologico del territorio dell’Aïr ed aree limitrofe. Rome: Istituto Italo-Africano.Google Scholar
Beltrami, V. 2007. Il Sahara Centro-Orientale Dalla Preistoria Ai Tempi Dei Nomadi Tubu: The Central-Oriental Sahara from Prehistory to the Times of the Nomadic Tubus. Oxford: Archaeopress.Google Scholar
Bernus, E. and Cressier, P. 1991. La région d’In Gall-Tegidda n Tesemt (Niger)- programme archéologique d’urgence, 1977–1981. Azelik-Takadda et l’implantation sédentaire médiévale. Niamey: Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar
Bernus, E. and Cressier, P. 1999. In Teduq du moyen-âge à l’époque actuelle. (Vallée de l’Azawagh (Sahara du Niger) vol 2). St Maur: Editions Sepia.Google Scholar
Bernus, S. and Gouletquer, P., 1976. Du cuivre au sel. Recherches ethno-archéologiques sur la région d’Azelik (campagnes 1973–1975). Journal des africanistes 46.1: 7–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berthier, S., 1997. Recherches archéologiques sur la capitale de l’empire de Ghana: Étude d’un secteur d’habitat à Koumbi Saleh, Mauritanie. Campagnes II-III-IV-V (1975–1976)-(1980–1981) (Cambridge Monographs in Archaeology, African 41/BAR International Series 680). Oxford: Archaeopress.Google Scholar
Blench, R. 2019. The linguistic prehistory of the Sahara. In Gatto et al. 2019, 431–63.Google Scholar
Bruce-Lockhart, J. and Wright, J. 2000. Difficult and Dangerous Roads. Hugh Clapperton’s Travels in Sahara and Fezzan 1822–1825. London: Sickle Moon Books.Google Scholar
Calvocoressi, D. and David, N. 1979. A new survey of radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dates for West Africa. Journal of African History 20.1: 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camps, G. 1997. Tin Hinan et sa légende. A propos du tumulus princier d’Abalessa (Ahaggar, Algérie). Bulletin archéologique du comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques ns 24: 173–95.Google Scholar
Capel, C., Zazzo, A., Saliège, J-F. and Polet, J. 2015. The end of a hundred-year-old archaeological riddle: First dating of the columns tomb of Kumbi Saleh (Mauritania). Radiocarbon 57.1: 65–75.Google Scholar
Capot-Rey, R. 1953. Le Sahara Français (L’Afrique Blanche Francaise II). Paris: Presses universitaires.Google Scholar
Capot-Rey, R. 1957. Introduction à une géographie humaine du Borkou. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 16: 41–72.Google Scholar
Capot-Rey, R. 1958. Decouvertes archeologiques au Borkou. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 17: 203–5.Google Scholar
Capot-Rey, R. 1959. Le sel et le commerce du sel au Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 18: 187–93.Google Scholar
Capot-Rey, R. 1961. Borkou et Ounianya. Etude de géographie régionale. Alger: IRS.Google Scholar
Chapelle, J. 1957. Black Nomads of the Sahara (translated by F. Schütze). Paris: Librairie Plon.Google Scholar
Chapelle, J. and Monod, T. 1937. Notes sur la grande sepulture d’El Mreïti. Bulletin du Comité des études historiques de l’A.O.F. 20: 507–21.Google Scholar
Cissé, M. 2010. Archaeological Investigations of Early Trade and Urbanism at Gao Saney (Mali). Unpublished PhD thesis, Rice University.Google Scholar
Cissé, M. 2017. The Trans-Saharan trade connection with Gao during the first millennium AD. In Mattingly, D.J., Leitch, V., Duckworth, C.N., Cuénod, A., Sterry, M. and Cole, F. (eds), Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 101–130.Google Scholar
Cleaveland, T. 2002. Becoming Walata: A History of Saharan Social Formation and Transformation. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Cline, W. 1950. The Teda of Tibesti, Borkou and Kawar. Mwenasha: General Series in Anthropology.Google Scholar
Close, A.E. 1980. Current research and recent radiocarbon dates from northern Africa. Journal of African History 21.2: 145–67.Google Scholar
Close, A.E., 1984. Current research and recent radiocarbon dates from northern Africa, II. Journal of African History 25.1: 1–24.Google Scholar
Cressier, P. and Bernus, S. 1984. La grande mosquée d’Agadez. Journal des africanistes 54.1: 5–40.Google Scholar
Dalloni, M. and Monod, T. 1948. Mission scientifique du Fezzan (1944–1945). VI Géologie et préhistoire (Fezzan méridionale, Kaouar et Tibesti). Alger: Impr. Imbert.Google Scholar
Denham, D., Clapperton, H. and Oudney, W. 1985. Narratives of Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa in the years 1822, 1823, and 1824. London: Darf Publishers (reprint).Google Scholar
Desio, A. 1935. Missione scientifica della Reale Accademia d’Italia a Cufra (1931–32). Vols I–III. Rome: Reale Accademia d’Italia.Google Scholar
Desio, A. 1942. Sahara Italiano. Il Tibesti nord-orientale. Rome: università la Sapienza.Google Scholar
Desio, A. 1950. Le vie della sete. Milan: Hoepli.Google Scholar
Despois, J. and Raynal, R. 1967. Géographie de l’Afrique du Nord-Ouest. Paris: Payot.Google Scholar
Devisse, J. (ed.). 1983. Tegdaoust III: Recherches sur Aoudaghost. Campagnes 1960/65, enquête generals. Paris: Editions Recherches sur les Civilisation.Google Scholar
Dupuy, C. 2010. Les apports archéologiques des gravures rupestres de l’Aïr (Niger) et de l’Adrar des Iforas (Mali). Les Nouvelles d’archéologie 120–121: 29–37.Google Scholar
Duveyrier, H. 1864. Les Touareg du nord. Exploration du Sahara. Paris: Challamel.Google Scholar
Ehret, C. 2019. Berber peoples in the Sahara and North Africa. Liguistic historical proposals. In Gatto et al. 2019, 464–94.Google Scholar
Gabriel, B. 1977. Zum ökologischen Wandel im Neolithikum der östlichen Zentralsahara. Berliner Geographische. Abhandlungen 27: 1–94.Google Scholar
Gabriel, B. 1981. Die oestliche Sahara in Holozaen: Klima, Landschaft und Kulturen. In Roubet, C., Hugot, H.L. and Souville, G. (eds), Mélanges offerts au Doyen Lionel Balout. Paris: A.D.P.F., 195–211.Google Scholar
Gast, M. and Hachid, M. 1995. Djanet. Encyclopédie berbère fasc 16: 2379–90.Google Scholar
Gatto, M.C. 2006. The local pottery. In Liverani, M. (ed.), Aghram Nadarif. A Garamantian Citadel in the Wadi Tannezzuft. Firenze: All’Insegna del Giglio, 201–40.Google Scholar
Gatto, M., Mattingly, D.J., Ray, N. and Sterry, M. (eds). 2019. Burials, Migration and Identity in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Trans-Saharan Archaeology Volume II. Series editor Mattingly, D.J.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and The Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar
Gautier, E.-F. 1970. Sahara. The Great Desert (translated by D.F. Mayhew). London: Octagon.Google Scholar
Gauthier, Y. and Gauthier, C. 2011. Des chars et des Tifinagh: étude aréale et corrélations. Cahiers de l’association des amis de l’art rupestre saharien 15: 91–118.Google Scholar
Grébénart, D. 1985. Le néolithique final et les débuts de la métallurgie. Niamey: Inst. de recherches en sciences humaines.Google Scholar
Grébénart, D. 1988. Les origines de la métallurgie en Afrique occidentale. Paris: Errance.Google Scholar
Hachid, M. 1998. Le Tassili des Ajjer. Aux sources de l’Afrique. Paris: Ed Paris-Méditerranée.Google Scholar
Hachid, M. 2000. Les premiers berbères. Entre Méditerannée, Tassili et Nil. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud.Google Scholar
Haour, A.C. 2003. One hundred years of archaeology in Niger. Journal of World Prehistory 17.2: 181–234.Google Scholar
Haour, A.C. 2017. What made Islamic trade distinctive as compared to pre-Islamic trade? In Mattingly et al. 2017, 80–100.Google Scholar
Huard, P. 1953. Gravures rupestres de la lisiere nord-occidentale de Tibesti. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 10: 75–106.Google Scholar
Huard, P. and Féval, J.-C. 1964. Figurations rupestres des confins Algero-Niger-Tchadiens. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 23: 61–94.Google Scholar
Insoll, T. 1996. Islam, Archaeology and History. Gao Region (Mali) Ca.AD 900–1250. Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 39. BAR S647. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum.Google Scholar
Insoll, T. 2000. The origins of Timbuktu. Antiquity 74: 495–96.Google Scholar
Jäkel, D. and Geyh, M.A. 1982. 14C-Daten aus dem Gebiet der Sahara. Berliner Geographische Abhandlungen 32: 143–65.Google Scholar
Keding, B., Lenssen-Erz, T. and Pastoors, A. 2007. Pictures and pots from pastoralists. Investigations into the prehistory of the Ennedi highlands in NE Chad. Sahara 18; 23–46.Google Scholar
Lambert., N. 1986. Akjoujt (Axamuk). In Encyclopédie berbère 3, Ahaggar – Ali ben Ghaniya, 417–19.Google Scholar
Lange, D. and Berthoud, S. 1977. Al-Qasaba et d’autres villes de la route centrale du Sahara. Paideuma 23: 19–40.Google Scholar
Lebeuf, J.P. 1962. Archéologie tchadienne: Les Sao de Cameroun et du Tchad. Paris: Hermann.Google Scholar
Lebeuf, J.P. 1963. Prehistory, proto-history and history in Chad. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 2.4: 593–601.Google Scholar
Levtzion, N. and Hopkins, J.F.P. (eds). 2000. Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History. Princeton: Markus Wiener.Google Scholar
Lhote, H. 1971. Ronde-Bosse néolithique du Tassili représentant un Bovidé. Objets et Mondes 11.2: 227–35.Google Scholar
Lhote, H. 1972. Recherches sur Takedda, ville décrite par Ibn Battouta et située en Aïr. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Afrique Noire 34: 429–47.Google Scholar
Lhote, H. 1973. Découverte des ruines de Tadeliza: ancienne résidence des sultans de l’Aïr. Notes africaines 137: 9–16.Google Scholar
Lhote, H. 1984. Le Hoggar. Espace et temps. Paris: Armand Colin.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, P. 1986. Salt of the Desert Sun. History of Salt Production and Trade in the Central Sudan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lydon, G. 2009. On Trans-Saharan Trails: Islamic Law, Trade Networks and Cross-cultural Exchange in Nineteenth-century Western Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
MacDonald, K.C. 2011. A view from the south: Sub-Saharan evidence for contacts between North Africa, Mauritania and the Niger, 1000 BC – AD 700. In Dowler, A. and Galvin, E.R. (eds), Money, Trade and Trade Routes in Pre-Islamic North Africa. London: British Museum Press, 72–82.Google Scholar
MacEachern, S. 2019. Burial practices, settlement and regional connections around the southern Lake Chad basin 1500 BC–AD 1500. In Gatto et al. 2019, 399–428.Google Scholar
Magnavita, S. 2013. Initial encounters: Seeking traces of ancient trade connections between West Africa and the wider world. Afriques: débats, méthodes et terrains d’histoire 04. Available at: http://afriques.revues.org/1145 [last accessed 12 September 2019].Google Scholar
Magnavita, S. 2017. Track and trace. Archeometric approaches to the study of early Trans-Saharan trade. In Mattingly et al. 2017, 393–413.Google Scholar
Maître, J.-P. 1976. Inventaire archéologique du sud-est nigérien. Niamey: Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. (ed.). 2003. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 1, Synthesis. London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. (ed.). 2010. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 3, Excavations Carried out by C. M. Daniels. London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J., Leitch, V., Duckworth, C.N., Cuénod, A., Sterry, M. and Cole, F. (eds). 2017. Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mauny, R. 1955. Notes d’histoire et d’archéologie sur Azougui, Chinguetti et Ouadane. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Afrique Noire (B) 17: 142–62.Google Scholar
Mauny, R. 1956. Monnaies antiques trouvées en Afrique au sud du limes romain. Libyca 4: 249–61.Google Scholar
Mauny, R. 1961. Tableau géographique d’ouest africain au moyen âge. Dakar: Mémoires de l’I.F.A.N.Google Scholar
Mauny, R. 1978. Trans-Saharan contacts and the Iron Age in West Africa. In Fage, J.D. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 272–341.Google Scholar
McDougall, E.A. 2006. Snapshots from the Sahara: Salt the essence of being. In Mattingly, D., McLaren, S., Savage, E., Y. al-Fasatwi and Gadgood, K. (eds), The Libyan Desert: Natural Resources and Cultural Heritage. London: Society for Libyan Studies, 295–303.Google Scholar
Meerpohl, M. 2013. Footprints in the sand: Recent long distance camel trade in the Libyan Desert (north-east Chad/southeast Libya). In Förster, F. and Reimer, H. (eds), Desert Road Archaeology in Ancient Egypt and Beyond. Köln: H. Barth Inst., 167–91.Google Scholar
Monod, T. 1938. Teghaza, la ville en sel gemme (Sahara occidental). La Nature 3025: 289–96.Google Scholar
Monod, T. 1948. Sur quelques constructions anciennes du Sahara occidental. Bulletin de la Société de Géographie et d’Archéologie d’Oran 71: 1–30.Google Scholar
Munson, P.J. 1980. Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire. Journal of African History 21: 457–66.Google Scholar
Nachtigal, G. 1974. Sahara and Sudan, vol I, Tripoli and Fezzan, Tibesti or Tu (translated by A.G.B. and H.J. Fisher). London: C. Martin.Google Scholar
Nixon, S. 2009. Excavating Essouk-Tadmakka (Mali): New archaeological investigations of early Islamic trans-Saharan trade. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 44.2: 217–55.Google Scholar
Nixon, S. 2013. Tadmekka: Archéologie d’une ville caravanière des premiers temps du commerce transsaharien. Afriques 4. Available at: http://afriques.revues.org/1237 [last accessed 12 September 2019].Google Scholar
Nixon, S. (ed.). 2017. Essouk-Tadmekka: An Early Islamic Trans-Saharan Market Town. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Ould Khattar, M. 1995. La fin des temps préhistoriques dans le sud-est Mauritanien. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Université de Paris-I, Pantheon-Sorbonne.Google Scholar
Ould Mohamed Yahya, A. and Rebstock, U. 1997. Handlist of Manuscripts in Shinqit and Wadan. London: Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation.Google Scholar
Park, D.P. 2010. Prehistoric Timbuktu and its hinterland. Antiquity 84: 1076–88.Google Scholar
Paris, F. 1990. Les sépultures monumentales d’Iwelen (Niger). Journal des Africanistes 60.1: 47–75.Google Scholar
Paris, F. 1996. Les sépultures du Sahara nigérian, du Néoloithique à l’Islamisation. Paris: ORSTOM.Google Scholar
Paris, F., Roset, J.-P. and Saliège, J.F. 1986. Une sépulture musulmane ancienne dans l’Aïr septentrional (Niger). Comptes-Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences de Paris 303 (Série III.12): 513–18.Google Scholar
Perret, R. 1935. Observations géographiques faites au cours d’un voyage au Tassili des Ajjers. Bulletin de l’Association de géographes français 12.89: 96–100.Google Scholar
Perret, R. 1936. Recherches archéologiques et ethnographiques au Tassili des Ajjers (Sahara central). Les gravures rupestres de l’Oued Djaret, la population et les ruines d’Iherir. Journal de la Société des Africanistes 6.1: 41–64.Google Scholar
Pichler, W. 1997. A Latin inscription at Ti-m Missaou (Algeria). Sahara 9: 150–51.Google Scholar
Polet, J. 1985. Tegdaoust IV: Fouille d’un quartier de Tegdaoust. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations.Google Scholar
Posnansky, M. and McIntosh, R. 1976. New radiocarbon dates for northern and western Africa. The Journal of African History 17.2:161–95.Google Scholar
Prorok, B.K. de. 2001. In Quest of Lost Worlds: Five Archaeological Expeditions 1925–1934. Santa Barbara: Narrative Press (reprint of 1935 book).Google Scholar
Quéchon, G. and Roset, J.-P. 1974. Prospection archéologique du massif de Termit (Niger). Cahiers ORSTOM, Série Sciences Humaines 11.1: 85–104.Google Scholar
Retaillé, D. 1986. Le Kawar, problème géographique. Cahiers géographiques de Rouen 26: 37–60.Google Scholar
Reygasse, M. 1950. Monuments funéraires préislamiques de l’Afrique du Nord. Paris: Arts et Métiers Graphiques.Google Scholar
Richardson, J. 1853. Narrative of a Mission to Central Africa, 2 vols. London: Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Robert, D., Robert, S., Devisse, J. 1970. Tegdaoust I: Recheches sur Aoudaghost. Paris: Arts et Métiers Graphiques.Google Scholar
Robert, S. 1982. Rapport sur les mosquées historiques des villes anciennes de Oualata, Tichitt et Chinguetti. Nouakchott: IMRS.Google Scholar
Robert-Chaleix, D. 1989. Tegdaoust V: Une concession médiévale à Tegdaoust: implantation, évolution d’une unité d’habitation. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations.Google Scholar
Rohlfs, G. 1874/1875. Quer durch Afrika: Reise vom Mittelmeer nach dem Tschadsee und zum Golf von Guinea, 2 vols. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus Verlag.Google Scholar
Rohlfs, G. 2003. Voyages et explorations au Sahara. Tome V, Koufra – les oasis de Djofra et de Djalo 1878–1879 (translated by J. Debetz). Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Rønneseth, O. 1982a. Verlassene Siedlungen im Tibestigebirge. Berliner Geographische Abhandlungen 32: 27–62.Google Scholar
Rønneseth, O. 1982b. Gräber im nordwestlichen Tibesti (Tschad). Munich: Zabern.Google Scholar
Roset, J.-P. 1977. Un site à céramique peinte dans l’Aïr oriental (Niger). Cahiers Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer, ser Sci Hum 14: 337–46.Google Scholar
Roset, J.-P. 1988. Iwelen – an archaeological site of the chariot period in Northern Aïr, Niger. In Libya Antiqua. Paris: UNESCO, 13–46.Google Scholar
Roset, J.-P. 2007. La culture d’Iwelen et les débuts de la métallurgie du cuivre dans l’Aïr, au Niger. In Guilaine, J. (ed.), Le chalcolithique et la construction des inégalités. II, Proche et Moyen-Orient, Amérique, Afrique. Paris: Errance, 107–36.Google Scholar
Saison, B. 1981. Azugi: Archéologie at historie en Adrar mauritanien. Recherche, pédagogie et culture 11.55: 66–74.Google Scholar
Salama, P. 1981. The Sahara in classical antiquity. In Mokhtar, G. (ed.), UNESCO General History of Africa, II Ancient Civilisations of Africa. Paris: UNESCO, 513–32.Google Scholar
Scarin, E. 1937a. Le oasi cirenaiche del 29˚ parallelo. Firenze: Sansoni.Google Scholar
Scarin, E. 1937b. Descrizione delle oasi e gruppi di oasi. In Il Sahara Italiano, I. Fezzan e oasi di Gat. Rome: Società Italiana arto grafiche, 603–44.Google Scholar
Schiffers, H. 1957. Le Borkou et ses inhabitants. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 15: 65–88.Google Scholar
Stewart, C.C., Salim, S.A. and Yahya, A.O. 1990. Catalogue of Arabic manuscripts at the Institut Mauritanien de Recherche Scientifique. Islam et sociétés au Sud du Sahara 2.1: 179–84.Google Scholar
Thiry, J. 1995. Le Sahara libyen dans l’Afrique du nord médiévale. Leuven: Peeters.Google Scholar
Treinen-Claustre, F. 1982. Sahara et Sahel à l’âge du fer. Borkou, Tchad. Mémoires de la Société des Africanistes. Paris: Musée de l’Homme.Google Scholar
Vanacker, C. 1979. Tegdaoust II. Recherches sur Aoudaghost. Fouille d’un Quartier Artisinal. Nouakchott: Institut Mauritanien de la Recherche Scientifique.Google Scholar
Vernet, R. 1993. Préhistoire de la Mauritanie. Nouakchott: Centre Culturel Français A. de Saint Exupéry – Sépia.Google Scholar
Vernet, R. and Tous, P. 2004. Les amas coquilliers de Mauritanie occidentale et leur contexte paléoenvironnemental (VIIe–IIe millénaires BP). Préhistoires méditerranéennes 13: 55–69.Google Scholar
Vikør, K. 1999. Oasis of Salt. History of Kawar: Saharan Centre of Salt Production. Bergen: Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies.Google Scholar
Wilson, A.I. 2012. Saharan trade: Short-, medium- and long-distance trade networks in the Roman period. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 47.4: 409–49.Google Scholar
Wright, J. 1998. Murzuk and the Saharan slave trade in the 19th century. Libyan Studies 29: 89–96.Google Scholar
Yacono, D. 1968. L’Ahaggar. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 27, fasc. 1–2.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×