Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T12:14:51.181Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 6.4 - Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 April 2024

By
Lynne M. Drummond ,
Arun Enara ,
Giovanna Cirnigliaro ,
Julius Burkauskas  and
Naomi A. Fineberg
Edited by
David Kingdon ,
Paul Rowlands  and
George Stein
David Kingdon
Affiliation:
University of Southampton
Paul Rowlands
Affiliation:
Derbyshire Healthcare NHS foundation Trust
George Stein
Affiliation:
Emeritus of the Princess Royal University Hospital
Get access

Summary

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic and debilitating illness. It has a specific natural history and treatment response that merits separate attention. This chapter provides a comprehensive update on the origins, aetiology and treatment of OCD. We also touch upon advances in the understanding of a group of less-well-researched disorders related to and currently classified together with OCD, termed as the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (OCRDs). However, the main focus of this chapter will be on OCD.

Keywords

obsessive-compulsive disorderobsessionscompulsionsOCRDsSSRIsERPCBTtreatment resistance
Type
Chapter
Information
Seminars in General Adult Psychiatry , pp. 334 - 365
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Lewis, A. Inquiries in Psychiatry: Clinical and Social Investigations. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; 1967. www.ocdhistory.net/20thcentury/lewis.html. (accessed 19 July 2021).Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Gale, TM. Evidence-based pharmacotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2005;8(1):107–29. DOI: 10.1017/s1461145704004675.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, EB. Cognitive behavioral therapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 2010;12(2):199–207. DOI: 10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.2/efoa.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc; 2013.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. ICD-11 Mortality and Morbidity Statistics. Mental, Behavioural or Neurodevelopmental Disorders. icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en (accessed 1 June 2019).Google Scholar
Kogan, CS, Stein, DJ, Rebello, TJ, et al. Accuracy of diagnostic judgments using ICD-11 vs. ICD-10 diagnostic guidelines for obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders 2020;273:328–40. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, EB. Failure in treating obsessive-compulsives. Behavior Research and Therapy 1979;17(3):169–76. DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(79)90031-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matsunaga, H. [Clinical features, treatments and outcome of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) focusing on the assessment and characteristics of patients with treatment-refractory OCD]. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi. 2013;115(9):967–74.Google ScholarPubMed
Fineberg, NA, Potenza, MN, Chamberlain, SR, et al. Probing compulsive and impulsive behaviors, from animal models to endophenotypes: a narrative review. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35(3):591–604. DOI: 10.1038/npp.2009.185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matsunaga, H, Kiriike, N, Matsui, T, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder with poor insight. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2002;43(2):150–7. DOI: 10.1053/comp.2002.30798.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, AJ. Melancholia: a clinical survey of depressive states. Journal of Mental Science. 1934;80(329):277–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendell, RE, Discipio, WJ. Obsessional symptoms and obsessional personality traits in patients with depressive illnesses. Psychological Medicine 1970;1(1):65–72. DOI: 10.1017/s0033291700040022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myers, JK, Weissman, MM, Tischler, GL, et al. Six-month prevalence of psychiatric disorders in three communities 1980 to 1982. Archives of General Psychiatry 1984;41(10):959–67. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790210041006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, LN, Helzer, JE, Weissman, MM, et al. Lifetime prevalence of specific psychiatric disorders in three sites. Archives of General Psychiatry 1984;41(10):949–58. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790210031005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swedo, SE, Rapoport, JL, Leonard, H, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. Clinical phenomenology of 70 consecutive cases. Archives of General Psychiatry 1989;46(4):335–41. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810040041007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montgomery, MA, Clayton, PJ, Friedhoff, AJ. Psychiatric illness in Tourette syndrome patients and first-degree relatives. Advances in Neurology 1982;35:335–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Eapen, V, Robertson, MM, Alsobrook, JP, et al. Obsessive compulsive symptoms in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and obsessive compulsive disorder: differences by diagnosis and family history. American Journal of Medical Genetics 1997;74(4):432–8. DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-8628(19970725)74:4<432::aid-ajmg15>3.0.co;2-j.3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bloch, MH, Landeros-Weisenberger, A, Kelmendi, B, et al. A systematic review: antipsychotic augmentation with treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 2006;11(7):622–32. DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001823.Google ScholarPubMed
Gecaite-Stonciene, J, Lochner, C, Marincowitz, C, et al. Obsessive-compulsive (anankastic) personality disorder in the ICD-11: a scoping review. Frontiers in Psychiatry 2021;12:646030. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.646030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fineberg, NA, Reghunandanan, S, Kolli, S, Atmaca, M. Obsessive-compulsive (anankastic) personality disorder: toward the ICD-11 classification. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry 2014;36(Suppl 1):40–50. DOI: 10.1590/1516-4446-2013-1282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meier, SM, Petersen, L, Pedersen, MG, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder as a risk factor for schizophrenia: a nationwide study. JAMA Psychiatry 2014;71(11):1215–21. DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cederlöf, M, Lichtenstein, P, Larsson, H, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder, psychosis, and bipolarity: a longitudinal cohort and multigenerational family study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2015;41(5):1076–83. DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbu169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernandez-Egea, E, Worbe, Y, Bernardo, M, et al. Distinct risk factors for obsessive and compulsive symptoms in chronic schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 2018;48(16):2668–75. DOI: 10.1017/s003329171800017x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loomes, R, Hull, L, Mandy, WPL. What is the male-to-female ratio in autism spectrum disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2017;56(6):466–74. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2017.03.013.Google ScholarPubMed
Wikramanayake, WNM, Mandy, W, Shahper, S, et al. Autism spectrum disorders in adult outpatients with obsessive compulsive disorder in the UK. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice 2018;22(1):54–62. DOI: 10.1080/13651501.2017.1354029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Du, BF. Compulsion neurosis with cachexia (anorexia nervosa). American Journal of Psychiatry 1949;106(2):107–15. DOI: 10.1176/ajp.106.2.107.Google Scholar
Thiel, A, Broocks, A, Ohlmeier, M, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder among patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. American Journal of Psychiatry 1995;152(1):72–5. DOI: 10.1176/ajp.152.1.72.Google ScholarPubMed
Cashin, A, Buckley, T, Trollor, JN, et al. A scoping review of what is known of the physical health of adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities 2018;22(1):96–108. DOI: 10.1177/1744629516665242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tchanturia, K, Smith, E, Weineck, F, et al. Exploring autistic traits in anorexia: a clinical study. Molecular Autism 2013;4(1):44. DOI: 10.1186/2040-2392-4-44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alm, PA. Streptococcal infection as a major historical cause of stuttering: data, mechanisms, and current importance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2020;14:569519. DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.569519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swedo, SE, Frankovich, J, Murphy, TK. Overview of treatment of pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 2017;27(7):562–5. DOI: 10.1089/cap.2017.0042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, MM, Bland, RC, Canino, GJ, et al. The cross national epidemiology of obsessive compulsive disorder. The Cross National Collaborative Group. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1994;55(Suppl):5–10.Google ScholarPubMed
Karno, M, Golding, JM, Sorenson, SB, et al. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in five US communities. Archives of General Psychiatry 1988;45(12):1094–9. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800360042006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noshirvani, HF, Kasvikis, Y, Marks, IM,et al. Gender-divergent aetiological factors in obsessive-compulsive disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry 1991;158:260–3. DOI: 10.1192/bjp.158.2.260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drummond, LM. The treatment of severe, chronic, resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. An evaluation of an in-patient programme using behavioural psychotherapy in combination with other treatments. British Journal of Psychiatry 1993;163:223–9. DOI: 10.1192/bjp.163.2.223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boschen, MJ, Drummond, LM. Community treatment of severe, refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2012;50(3):203–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2012.01.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boschen, MJ, Drummond, LM, Pillay, A, et al. Predicting outcome of treatment for severe, treatment resistant OCD in inpatient and community settings. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2010;41(2):90–5. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.10.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rasmussen, SA, Eisen, JL. Epidemiology of obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1990;51(Suppl):10–3; discussion 4.Google ScholarPubMed
Flament, MF, Cohen, D. Child and adolescent obsessive‐compulsive disorder: a review. Obsessive‐Compulsive Disorder 2000;4:147–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skoog, G, Skoog, I. A 40-year follow-up of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder [see comments]. Archives of General Psychiatry 1999;56(2):121–7. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.56.2.121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albert, U, Barbaro, F, Bramante, S, et al. Duration of untreated illness and response to SRI treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder. European Psychiatry 2019;58:19–26. DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.01.017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell’Osso, B, Benatti, B, Grancini, B, et al. Investigating duration of illness and duration of untreated illness in obsessive compulsive disorder reveals patients remain at length pharmacologically untreated. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice 2019;23(4):311–3. DOI: 10.1080/13651501.2019.1621348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fineberg, NA, Hollander, E, Pallanti, S, et al. Clinical advances in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a position statement by the International College of Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2020;35(4):173–93. DOI: 10.1097/yic.0000000000000314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fineberg, NA, Dell’Osso, B, Albert, U, et al. Early intervention for obsessive compulsive disorder: an expert consensus statement. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2019;29(4):549–65. DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2019.02.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khanna, S, Kaliaperumal, V, Channabasavanna, S. Reactive factors in obsessive compulsive neurosis. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine 1986;9(2):68–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lo, WH. A follow-up study of obsessional neurotics in Hong Kong Chinese. British Journal of Psychiatry 1967;113(501):823–32. DOI: 10.1192/bjp.113.501.823.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chasson, GS, Williams, MT, Davis, DM, et al. Missed diagnoses in African Americans with obsessive-compulsive disorder: the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV Axis I disorders (SCID-I). BMC Psychiatry 2017;17(1):258. DOI: 10.1186/s12888-017-1422-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raphael, FJ, Rani, S, Bale, R, et al. Religion, ethnicity and obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 1996;42(1):38–44. DOI: 10.1177/002076409604200105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rasmussen, SA, Tsuang, MT. Clinical characteristics and family history in DSM-III obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 1986;143(3):317–22. DOI: 10.1176/ajp.143.3.317.Google ScholarPubMed
Nicolini, H, Salin-Pascual, R, Cabrera, B, et al. Influence of culture in obsessive-compulsive disorder and its treatment. Current Psychiatry Reviews 2017;13(4):285–92. DOI: 10.2174/2211556007666180115105935.Google ScholarPubMed
Saraiva, LC, Cappi, C, Simpson, HB, et al. Cutting-edge genetics in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Faculty Reviews 2020;9:30. DOI: 10.12703/r/9-30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ahmari, SE, Dougherty, DD. Diessecting OCD circuits: from animal models to targeted treatments. Depression and Anxiety 2015;32(8):550–62. DOI: 10.1002/da.22367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chamberlain, BL, Ahmari, SE. Animal models for OCD research. In: Fineberg, NA, Robbins, TW (eds.) The Neurobiology and Treatment of OCD: Accelerating Progress. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2021: 55–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Purty, A, Nestadt, G, Samuels, JF, et al. Genetics of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 2019;61(Suppl 1):S37–S42. DOI: 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_518_18.Google ScholarPubMed
Strom, NI, Soda, T, Mathews, CA, et al. A dimensional perspective on the genetics of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Translational Psychiatry 2021;11(1):401. DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01519-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pauls, L, Fineberg, P, Marazziti, D, et al. The role of genetic factors in OCD. In: Fineberg, N, Marazziti, D, Stein, DJ (eds.) Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: A Practical Guide. London: Taylor & Francis. 2001: 61–77.Google Scholar
McGuffin, P, Reich, T. Psychopathology and genetics. In: Lesse, S. (ed.) Comprehensive Handbook of Psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Publishing; 1984: 47–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauls, DL, Alsobrook, JP II, Goodman, W, et al. A family study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 1995;152(1):76–84. DOI: 10.1176/ajp.152.1.76.Google ScholarPubMed
Brander, G, Kuja-Halkola, R, Rosenqvist, MA, et al. A population-based family clustering study of tic-related obsessive-compulsive disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 2021;26(4):1224–33. DOI: 10.1038/s41380-019-0532-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, G. Twin and family studies of anxiety, phobic and obsessive disorders. In: Klein, DF, Rabkin, JG (eds.) Anxiety: New Research and Changing Concepts. New York: Raven Press; 1981: 117–36C.Google Scholar
Burton, CL, Park, LS, Corfield, EC, et al. Heritability of obsessive-compulsive trait dimensions in youth from the general population. Translational Psychiatry 2018;8(1):191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mataix-Cols, D, Boman, M, Monzani, B, et al. Population-based, multigenerational family clustering study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. JAMA Psychiatry 2013;70(7):709–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicolini, H, Hanna, G, Baxter, L, et al. Segregation analysis of obsessive compulsive disorders. Preliminary results. Ursus Medicus 1991;1:25–8.Google Scholar
Cavallini, MC, Di Bella, D, Pasquale, L, et al. 5HT2C CYS23/SER23 polymorphism is not associated with obsessive–compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Research 1998;77(2):97–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alsobrook, JP II, Leckman, JF, Goodman, WK, et al. Segregation analysis of obsessive‐compulsive disorder using symptom‐based factor scores. American Journal of Medical Genetics 1999;88(6):669–75.3.0.CO;2-N>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piantadosi, SC, Chamberlain, BL, Glausier, JR, et al. Lower excitatory synaptic gene expression in orbitofrontal cortex and striatum in an initial study of subjects with obsessive compulsive disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 2021;26(3):986–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zohar, J, Insel, TR. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: psychobiological approaches to diagnosis, treatment, and pathophysiology. Biological Psychiatry 1987;22(6):667–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thorén, P, Åsberg, M, Cronholm, B, et al. Clomipramine treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: I. A controlled clinical trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 1980;37(11):1281–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Pampaloni, I, Pallanti, S, et al. Sustained response versus relapse: the pharmacotherapeutic goal for obsessive–compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2007;22(6):313–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bloch, MH, McGuire, J, Landeros-Weisenberger, A, et al. Meta-analysis of the dose-response relationship of SSRI in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 2010;15(8):850–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blier, P, Abbott, FV. Putative mechanisms of action of antidepressant drugs in affective and anxiety disorders and pain. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 2001;26(1):37.Google ScholarPubMed
Bandelow, B, Baldwin, D, Abelli, M, et al. Biological markers for anxiety disorders, OCD and PTSD: a consensus statement. Part II: Neurochemistry, neurophysiology and neurocognition. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 2017;18(3):162–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marazziti, D, Conti, L, Pfanner, C, et al. No correlation between aggression and platelet 3H-paroxetine binding in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. Neuropsychobiology 2001;43(3):117–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hjorth, S, Bengtsson, H, Kullberg, A, et al. Serotonin autoreceptor function and antidepressant drug action. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2000;14(2):177–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maia, TV, Cooney, RE, Peterson, BS. The neural bases of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adults. Development and Psychopathology 2008;20(4):1251–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El Mansari, M, Blier, P. Responsiveness of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptors in the rat orbitofrontal cortex after long-term serotonin reuptake inhibition. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 2005;30(4):268–74.Google Scholar
Aouizerate, B, Guehl, D, Cuny, E, et al. Updated overview of the putative role of the serotoninergic system in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment 2005;1(3):231–43.Google ScholarPubMed
Hollander, E, Fay, M, Cohen, B, et al. Serotonergic and noradrenergic sensitivity in obsessive-compulsive disorder: behavioral findings. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1988;145(8):1015–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Erzegovesi, S, Cavallini, MC, Cavedini, P, et al. Clinical predictors of drug response in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 2001;21(5):488–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pallanti, S, Hollander, E, Bienstock, C, et al. Treatment non-response in OCD: methodological issues and operational definitions. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2002;5(2):181–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDougle, CJ, Goodman, WK. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: pharmacotherapy and pathophysiology. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 1991;4:267–72.Google Scholar
Leckman, JF, Goodman, WK, North, WG, et al. Elevated cerebrospinal fluid levels of oxytocin in obsessive-compulsive disorder: comparison with Tourette’s syndrome and healthy controls. Archives of General Psychiatry 1994;51(10):782–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karthik, S, Sharma, LP, Narayanaswamy, JC. Investigating the role of glutamate in obsessive-compulsive disorder: current perspectives. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment 2020;16:1003–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marinova, Z, Chuang, D-M, Fineberg, N. Glutamate-modulating drugs as a potential therapeutic strategy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Current Neuropharmacology 2017;15(7):977–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharma, LP, Reddy, YJ. Obsessive-compulsive disorder comorbid with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 2019;61(Suppl 1):S140.Google ScholarPubMed
Alexander, GE, Crutcher, MD, DeLong, MR. Basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, ‘prefrontal’ and ‘limbic’ functions. Progress in Brain Research 1991;85:119–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veltman, D. Structural imaging in OCD. In: Fineberg, N, Robbins, TW (eds.) The Neurobiology and Treatment of OCD: Accelerating Progress. Berlin: Springer; 2021: 201–29.Google Scholar
Eng, GK, Sim, K, Chen, S-HA. Meta-analytic investigations of structural grey matter, executive domain-related functional activations, and white matter diffusivity in obsessive compulsive disorder: an integrative review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 2015;52:233–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hazari, N, Narayanaswamy, JC, Venkatasubramanian, G. Neuroimaging findings in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a narrative review to elucidate neurobiological underpinnings. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 2019;61(Suppl 1):S9.Google ScholarPubMed
Boedhoe, PS, Schmaal, L, Abe, Y, et al. Distinct subcortical volume alterations in pediatric and adult OCD: a worldwide meta-and mega-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry 2017;174(1):60–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boedhoe, PSW, Schmaal, L, Abe, Y, et al. Cortical abnormalities associated with pediatric and adult obsessive-compulsive disorder: findings from the ENIGMA Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Working Group. American Journal of Psychiatry 2018;175(5):453–62. DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17050485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soriano-Mas, C. Functional brain imaging and OCD. In: Fineberg, N, Robbins, TW (eds.) The Neurobiology and Treatment of OCD: Accelerating Progress. Berlin: Springer; 2021: 269–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biria, M, Cantonas, L-M, Banca, P. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging in obsessive-compulsive disorder. In: Fineberg, N, Robbins, TW (eds.) The Neurobiology and Treatment of OCD: Accelerating Progress. Berlin: Springer; 2021: 231–68.Google Scholar
Zhang, Z, Fan, Q, Bai, Y, et al. Brain gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) concentration of the prefrontal lobe in unmedicated patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a research of magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Shanghai Archives of Psychiatry 2016;28(5):263.Google ScholarPubMed
Zheng, H, Yang, W, Zhang, B, et al. Reduced anterior cingulate glutamate of comorbid skin-picking disorder in adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders 2020;265:193–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fan, S, Cath, DC, van den Heuvel, OA, et al. Abnormalities in metabolite concentrations in Tourette’s disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder – A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017;77:211–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Y, Zhang, CC, Weidacker, K, et al. Investigation of anterior cingulate cortex gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate-glutamine levels in obsessive-compulsive disorder using magnetic resonance spectroscopy. BMC Psychiatry 2019;19(1):1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yalçin, Ö, Şener, Ş, Boyunağa, ÖLK, et al. Comparing brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy findings of pediatric treatment-naive obsessive-compulsive disorder patients with healthy controls. Turkish Journal of Psychiatry 2011;22(4):222–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Yücel, M, Harrison, BJ, Wood, SJ, et al. Functional and biochemical alterations of the medial frontal cortex in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 2007;64(8):946–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parmar, A, Sharan, P, Khandelwal, SK, et al. Brain neurochemistry in unmedicated obsessive-compulsive disorder patients and effects of 12‐week escitalopram treatment: 1H‐magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 2019;73(7):386–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Escobar, AP, Wendland, JR, Chávez, AE, et al. The neuronal glutamate transporter EAAT3 in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Frontiers in Pharmacology 2019;10:1362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinberg, A, Dieterich, R, Riesel, A. Error-related brain activity in the age of RDoC: a review of the literature. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2015;98(2):276–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riesel, A. The erring brain: error‐related negativity as an endophenotype for OCD – A review and meta‐analysis. Psychophysiology 2019;56(4):e13348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perera, MPN, Bailey, NW, Herring, SE, et al. Electrophysiology of obsessive compulsive disorder: a systematic review of the electroencephalographic literature. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2019;62:1–14. DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.11.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fineberg, N, Robbins, TW. The Neurobiology and Treatment of OCD: Accelerating Progress. Berlin: Springer; 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholson, TR, Ferdinando, S, Krishnaiah, RB, et al. Prevalence of anti-basal ganglia antibodies in adult obsessive-compulsive disorder: cross-sectional study. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2012;200(5):381–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, J. Inflammation, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and related disorders. In: Fineberg, N, Robbins, TW (eds.) The Neurobiology and Treatment of OCD: Accelerating Progress. Berlin: Springer; 2021: 31–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turna, J, Grosman Kaplan, K, Anglin, R, et al. The gut microbiome and inflammation in obsessive‐compulsive disorder patients compared to age‐and sex‐matched controls: a pilot study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2020;142(4):337–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freud, S. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (trans. Strachey, JE). London: Hogarth Press; 1964.Google Scholar
Warwick, HM, Salkovskis, PM. Reassurance. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition) 1985;290(6474):1028. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.290.6474.1028.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillan, CM, Robbins, TW, Sahakian, BJ, et al. The role of habit in compulsivity. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;26(5):828–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenstein, E, Eisenstein, D, Smith, JC. The evolutionary significance of habituation and sensitization across phylogeny: a behavioral homeostasis model. Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science 2001;36:251–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, DJ, Hermesh, H, Eilam, D, et al. Human compulsivity: a perspective from evolutionary medicine. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;26(5):869–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tybur, JM, Lieberman, D, Griskevicius, V. Microbes, mating, and morality: individual differences in three functional domains of disgust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2009;97(1):103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haidt, J, McCauley, C, Rozin, P. Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: a scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences 1994;16(5):701–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Haidt, J, McKay, D, et al. Core, animal reminder, and contamination disgust: three kinds of disgust with distinct personality, behavioral, physiological, and clinical correlates. Journal of Research in Personality 2008;42(5):1243–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Druschel, B, Sherman, MF. Disgust sensitivity as a function of the Big Five and gender. Personality and Individual Differences 1999;26(4):739–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachman, S. A cognitive theory of compulsive checking. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2002;40(6):625–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, A, Papageorgiou, C. Relationships between worry, obsessive-compulsive symptoms and meta-cognitive beliefs. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1998;36(9):899–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tümkaya, S, Karadağ, F, Yenigün, EH, et al. Metacognitive beliefs and their relation with symptoms in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of Neuropsychiatry 2018;55(4):358.Google ScholarPubMed
Robbins, TW, Vaghi, MM, Banca, P. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: puzzles and prospects. Neuron 2019;102(1):27–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fineberg, NA, Apergis-Schoute, AM, Vaghi, MM, et al. Mapping compulsivity in the DSM-5 obsessive compulsive and related disorders: cognitive domains, neural circuitry, and treatment. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2018;21(1):42–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mckeon, J, Roa, B, Mann, A. Life events and personality traits in obsessive-compulsive neurosis. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1984;144(2):185–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Treatment. Clinical Guideline [CG31]. London: National Intitute of Clinical Excellence; 2005.Google Scholar
Skapinakis, P, Caldwell, DM, Hollingworth, W, et al. Pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions for management of obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry 2016;3(8):730–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Goodman, WK, Price, LH, Rasmussen, SA, et al. The Yale-Brown obsessive compulsive scale: I. Development, use, and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry 1989;46(11):1006–11.Google ScholarPubMed
Hollander, E, Stein, DJ, Fineberg, NA, et al. Quality of life outcomes in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: relationship to treatment response and symptom relapse. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2010;71(6):784–92. DOI: 10.4088/JCP.09m05911blu.Google ScholarPubMed
Drummond, LM, Edwards, LJ. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: All You Want to Know About OCD for People Living With OCD, Carers, and Clinicians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennington, L. CBT for Adults: a practical guide for clinicians. L.M. Drummond London: Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2014. pp. 284, £ 28.50 (pb). ISBN: 978-1-909-72627-7. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 2015;43(6):767–8.Google Scholar
Wootton, BM. Remote cognitive–behavior therapy for obsessive–compulsive symptoms: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review 2016;43:103–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, MA, Lemmen, K, Kramer, R, et al. Internet-delivered health interventions that work: systematic review of meta-analyses and evaluation of website availability. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2017;19(3):e90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLean, PD, Whittal, ML, Thordarson, DS, et al. Cognitive versus behavior therapy in the group treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2001;69(2):205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Külz, AK, Landmann, S, Cludius, B, et al. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and residual symptoms after cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): a randomized controlled trial. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2019;269:223–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simpson, HB, Maher, MJ, Wang, Y, et al. Patient adherence predicts outcome from cognitive behavioral therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2011;79(2):247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reid, JE, Laws, KR, Drummond, L, et al. Cognitive behavioural therapy with exposure and response prevention in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2021;106:152223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cawley, R. Psychotherapy and obsessional disorders. In: Beech, HR (ed.) Obsessional States. London: Methuen; 1974: 259–89.Google Scholar
Montgomery, S. Clomipramine in obsessional neurosis: a placebo-controlled trial. Pharmaceutical Medicine 1980;1:189–92.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Reghunandanan, S, Brown, A, et al. Pharmacotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder: evidence-based treatment and beyond. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2013;47(2):121–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soomro, GM, Altman, DG, Rajagopal, S, et al. Selective serotonin re‐uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) versus placebo for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008;2008(1):CD001765.Google ScholarPubMed
Baldwin, DS, Anderson, IM, Nutt, DJ, et al. Evidence-based pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a revision of the 2005 guidelines from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2014;28(5):403–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association, Koran, LM, Hanna, GL, et al. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 2007;164(7 Suppl):5–53.Google ScholarPubMed
Pampaloni, I, Sivakumaran, T, Hawley, C, et al. High-dose selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in OCD: a systematic retrospective case notes survey. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2010;24(10):1439–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaughan, R, O’Donnell, C, Drummond, LM. Blood levels of treatment resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder patients prescribed supra-normal dosages of sertraline. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2018;28(6):767–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ninan, PT, Koran, LM, Kiev, A, et al. High-dose sertraline strategy for nonresponders to acute treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a multicenter double-blind trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2006;67(1):15–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dougherty, DD, Jameson, M, Deckersbach, T, et al. Open-label study of high (30 mg) and moderate (20 mg) dose escitalopram for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2009;24(6):306–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aitchinson, KJ, Baldwin, DS, Barnes, TR, et al. Use of licensed medicines for unlicensed applications in psychiatric practice. 2017.Google Scholar
Karameh, WK, Khani, M. Intravenous clomipramine for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;19(2):pyv084.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dold, M, Aigner, M, Lanzenberger, R, et al.Antipsychotic augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: an update meta-analysis of double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2015;18(9):pyv047.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Etherington, L-A, Matthews, K, Akram, H. New directions for surgical ablation treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder. In: Fineberg, N, Robbins, TW (eds.) The Neurobiology and Treatment of OCD: Accelerating Progress. Springer; 2021: 437–60.Google Scholar
Pepper, J, Zrinzo, L, Hariz, M. Anterior capsulotomy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review of old and new literature. Journal of Neurosurgery 2019;133(5):1595–604.Google Scholar
Lai, Y, Wang, T, Zhang, C, et al. Effectiveness and safety of neuroablation for severe and treatment-resistant obsessive–compulsive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 2020;45(5):356–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergfeld, IO, Dijkstra, E, Graat, I, et al. Invasive and non-invasive neurostimulation for OCD. Current Topics in Behavioral Neuroscience 2021;49:399–436. DOI: 10.1007/7854_2020_206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyagi, H, Apergis-Schoute, AM, Akram, H, et al. A randomized trial directly comparing ventral capsule and anteromedial subthalamic nucleus stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical and imaging evidence for dissociable effects. Biological Psychiatry 2019;85(9):726–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angelakis, I, Gooding, PA, Panagioti, M. Suicidality in body dysmorphic disorder (BDD): a systematic review with meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review 2016;49:55–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosen, JC, Reiter, J, Orosan, P. Cognitive-behavioral body image therapy for body dysmorphic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1995;63(2):263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castle, D, Beilharz, F, Phillips, KA, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder: a treatment synthesis and consensus on behalf of the International College of Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders and the Obsessive Compulsive and Related Disorders Network of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2021;36(2):61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilhelm, S, Phillips, KA, Didie, E, et al. Modular cognitive-behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Behavior Therapy 2014;45(3):314–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKay, D, Todaro, J, Neziroglu, F, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder: a preliminary evaluation of treatment and maintenance using exposure with response prevention. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1997;35(1):67–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drummond, LM, Edwards, LJ. Everything You Need to Know about OCD. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaboski, BA, Merritt, OA, Schrack, AP, et al. Hoarding: a meta‐analysis of age of onset. Depression and Anxiety 2019;36(6):552–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drury, H, Ajmi, S. Fernández de la Cruz, L, et al. Caregiver burden, family accommodation, health, and well-being in relatives of individuals with hoarding disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders 2014;159:7–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bratiotis, C, Muroff, J, Lin, NXY. Hoarding disorder: development in conceptualization, intervention, and evaluation. Focus (American Psychiatric Publishing) 2021;19(4):392–404. DOI: 10.1176/appi.focus.20210016.Google ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic Criteria From DSM-IV. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1992.Google Scholar
Lucini, G, Monk, I, Szlatenyi, C. An Analysis of Fire Incidents Involving Hoarding Households. Melbourne, Australia: Worcester Polytechnic Institute; 2009.Google Scholar
Steketee, G, Frost, RO. Compulsive Hoarding and Acquiring. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2006.Google Scholar
Bodryzlova, Y, Audet, JS, Bergeron, K, et al. Group cognitive‐behavioural therapy for hoarding disorder: systematic review and meta‐analysis. Health & Social Care in the Community 2019;27(3):517–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linkovski, O, Zwerling, J, Cordell, E, et al. Augmenting Buried in Treasures with in-home uncluttering practice: pilot study in hoarding disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2018;107:145–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chamberlain, SR, Odlaug, BL, Boulougouris, V, et al. Trichotillomania: neurobiology and treatment. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 2009;33(6):831–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christenson, GA, Mackenzie, TB, Mitchell, JE. Characteristics of 60 adult hair pullers. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1991;148(3):365–70.Google ScholarPubMed
Grant, JE, Chamberlain, SR. Trichotillomania. American Journal of Psychiatry 2016;173(9):868–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Minnen, A, Hoogduin, KA, Keijsers, GP, et al. Treatment of trichotillomania with behavioral therapy or fluoxetine: a randomized, waiting-list controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry 2003;60(5):517–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grant, JE, Chamberlain, SR. Prevalence of skin picking (excoriation) disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2020;130:57–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starcevic, V. Hypochondriasis and health anxiety: conceptual challenges. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2013;202(1):7–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrer, P, Cooper, S, Tyrer, H, et al. Increase in the prevalence of health anxiety in medical clinics: possible cyberchondria. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 2019;65(7–8):566–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meng, J, Gao, C, Tang, C, et al. Prevalence of hypochondriac symptoms among health science students in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS one. 2019;14(9):e0222663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newby, JM, Hobbs, MJ, Mahoney, AE, et al. DSM-5 illness anxiety disorder and somatic symptom disorder: comorbidity, correlates, and overlap with DSM-IV hypochondriasis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2017;101:31–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrer, P, Tyrer, H. Health anxiety: detection and treatment. BJPsych Advances 2018;24(1):66–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gustavsson, A, Svensson, M, Jacobi, F, et al. Cost of disorders of the brain in Europe 2010. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;21(10):718–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Somashekar, B, Jainer, A, Wuntakal, B. Psychopharmacotherapy of somatic symptoms disorders. International Review of Psychiatry 2013;25(1):107–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fineberg, NA, Pellegrini, L, Clarke, A, et al. Meta-analysis of cognitive behaviour therapy and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for the treatment of hypochondriasis: implications for trial design. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2022:152334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×