Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T12:44:24.906Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 3 - The Role of Time in Organizational Change

from Part II - The Evolution of Change and Its Responses

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 September 2023

By
Frank Belschak  and
Gabriele Jacobs
Edited by
Shaul Oreg ,
Alexandra Michel  and
Rune Todnem By
Shaul Oreg
Affiliation:
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Alexandra Michel
Affiliation:
Universität Heidelberg
Rune Todnem By
Affiliation:
Universitet i Stavanger, Norway
Get access

Summary

Organizational change is an inherently temporal phenomenon which unfolds over time. Change processes are difficult to predict, take unforeseen turns, and are often implemented sequentially. This typically causes uncertainty and ambiguity and affects employees’ appraisal of a change project and the related beliefs, expectations, emotions, and behavioral reactions. The unfolding of change processes over time is addressed in only few theoretical conceptualizations (e.g., the "change curve"). In this chapter we explore the time-related psychological aspects of organizational change. More specifically, we explore how change processes can be theoretically modeled to include a temporal perspective, how change recipients’ cognitive and emotional experiences and reactions to change evolve over time, and how individual and organizational factors influence change recipients’ experiences and reactions over time. We propose a phases model in which we describe the development of change recipients’ reactions over the course of a change project. Here, we integrate literature from the fields of organizational psychology and organizational behavior as well as change management and sensemaking.

Keywords

organizational changetimechange managementchange curvechange reactionsprocess modelphases model
Type
Chapter
Information
The Psychology of Organizational Change
New Insights on the Antecedents and Consequences of Individuals' Responses to Change
 , pp. 42 - 66
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Amis, J., Slack, T., & Hinings, C. R. (2004). The pace, sequence, and linearity of radical change. Academy of Management Journal, 47(1), 15–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ancona, D. G., Okhuysen, G. A., & Perlow, L. A. (2001). Taking time to integrate temporal research. Academy of Management Review, 26(4), 512–529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armenakis, A. A., Bernerth, J. B., Pitts, J. P., & Walker, H. J. (2007). Organizational change recipients’ beliefs scale: Development of an assessment instrument. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 43(4), 481–505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armenakis, A. A., & Harris, S. G. (2002). Crafting a change message to create transformational readiness. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 15(2), 169–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armenakis, A. A., & Harris, S. G. (2009). Reflections: Our journey in organizational change research and practice. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 9(2), 127–142.Google Scholar
Armenakis, A. A., Harris, S. G., & Feild, H. S. (1999). Making change permanent: A model for institutionalizing change interventions. In Pasmore, W. A. & Woodman, R. W. (eds.), Research in organizational change and development, vol. 12 (pp. 97–128). New York: JAI Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armenakis, A. A., Harris, S. G., & Mossholder, K. W. (1993). Creating readiness for large scale change. Human Relations, 46(6), 681–703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balogun, J., & Hope Hailey, V. (2004). Exploring strategic change (2nd ed.). London: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Bartunek, J. M., & Woodman, R. W. (2015). Beyond Lewin: Toward a temporal approximation of organization development and change. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2, 157–182.Google Scholar
Battilana, J., & Casciaro, T. (2013). Overcoming resistance to organizational change: Strong ties and affective cooption. Management Science, 59(4), 819–836.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Begley, T. M., & Czajka, J. M. (1993). Panel analysis of the moderating effects of commitment on job satisfaction, intent to quit, and health following organizational change. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 552–556.Google Scholar
Belschak, F. D., Jacobs, G., Giessner, S. R., Horton, K. E., & Bayerl, P. S. (2020). When the going gets tough: Employee reactions to large-scale organizational change and the role of employee Machiavellianism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 41(9), 830–850.Google Scholar
Bordia, P., Hobman, E., Jones, E., Gallois, C., & Callan, V. J. (2004). Uncertainty during organizational change: Types, consequences, and management strategies. Journal of Business & Psychology, 18(4), 507–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bordia, P., Restubog, S. L. D., Jimmieson, N. L., & Irmer, B. E. (2011). Haunted by the past: Effects of poor change management history on employee attitudes and turnover. Group & Organization Management, 36(2), 191–222.Google Scholar
Buono, A. F., Bowditch, J. L., & Lewis, J. W. III (1985). When cultures collide: The anatomy of a merger. Human Relations, 38(5), 477–500.Google Scholar
Burke, C. S., Stagl, K. C., Salas, E., Pierce, L., & Kendall, D. (2006). Understanding team adaptation: A conceptual analysis and model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(6), 1189–1207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnes, B. (2004). Kurt Lewin and the planned approach to change: A re-appraisal. Journal of Management Studies, 41(6), 977–1002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnes, B. (2020). The origins of Lewin’s Three-Step Model of Change. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 56(1), 32–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, G., Ployhart, R. E., Cooper Thomas, H., Anderson, N., & Bliese, P. D. (2011). The power of momentum: A new model of dynamic relationships between job satisfaction change, and turnover intentions. Academy of Management Journal, 54(1), 159–181.Google Scholar
Chung, G. H., & Choi, J. N. (2018). Innovation implementation as a dynamic equilibrium: Emergent processes and divergent outcomes. Group & Organization Management, 43(6), 999–1036.Google Scholar
Cummings, S., Bridgman, T., & Brown, K. G. (2016). Unfreezing change as three steps: Rethinking Kurt Lewin’s legacy for change management. Human Relations, 69(1), 33–60.Google Scholar
Devos, G., Buelens, M., & Bouckenooghe, D. (2007). Contribution of content, context, and process to understanding openness to organizational change: Two experimental simulation studies. Journal of Social Psychology, 147(6), 607–630.Google Scholar
Elrod, P. D., & Tippett, D. D. (1999). An empirical study of the relationship between team performance and team maturity. Engineering Management Journal, 11(1), 7–14.Google Scholar
Elrod, P. D., & Tippett, D. D. (2002). The “death valley” of change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 15(3), 273–291.Google Scholar
Fugate, M., Kinicki, A. J., & Scheck, C. L. (2002). Coping with an organizational merger of four stages. Personnel Psychology, 55(4), 905–928.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fugate, M., Prussia, G. E., & Kinicki, A. J. (2012). Managing employee withdrawal during organizational change: The role of threat appraisal. Journal of Management, 38(3), 890–914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, J. M., & Jones, G. R. (2000). The role of time in theory and theory building. Journal of Management, 26(4), 657–684.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giaever, F., & Smollan, R. K. (2015). Evolving emotional experiences following organizational change: A longitudinal qualitative study. Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management, 10(2), 105–123.Google Scholar
Gilovich, T., Kerr, M., & Medvec, V. H. (1993). Effect of temporal perspective on subjective confidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(4), 552–560.Google Scholar
Gordon, S. S., Stewart, W. H., Sweo, R., & Luker, W. A. (2000). Convergence versus strategic reorientation: The antecedents of fast-paced organizational change. Journal of Management, 26(5), 911–945.Google Scholar
Grant, A. M., Dutton, J. E., & Rosso, B. D. (2008). Giving commitment: Employee support programs and the prosocial sensemaking process. Academy of Management Journal, 51(5), 898–918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, M. A., Neal, A., & Parker, S. K. (2007). A new model of work performance: Positive behavior in uncertain and interdependent contexts. Academy of Management Journal, 50(2), 327–347.Google Scholar
Heracleus, L., & Bartunek, J. (2021). Organization change failure, deep structure, and temporality: Appreciating Wonderland. Human Relations, 74(2), 208–233.Google Scholar
Herold, D. M., Fedor, D. B., & Caldwell, S. D. (2007). Beyond change management: A multilevel investigation of contextual and personal influences on employees’ commitment to change. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(4), 942–951.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herscovitch, L., & Meyer, J. P. (2002). Commitment to organizational change: Extension of a three-component model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 474–487.Google Scholar
Heyden, M. L. M., Fourné, S. P. L., Koene, B. A. S., Werkman, R., & Ansari, S. (2017). Rethinking ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ roles of top and middle managers in organizational change: Implications for employee support. Journal of Management Studies, 54(7), 961–985.Google Scholar
Horton, K. E., Bayerl, P. S., & Jacobs, G. (2014). Identity conflicts at work: An integrative framework. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(S1), S6–22.Google Scholar
Hughes, M. (2011). Do 70 per cent of all organizational change initiatives really fail? Journal of Change Management, 11(4), 451–464.Google Scholar
Isabella, L. A. (1990). Evolving interpretations as a change unfolds: How managers construe key organizational events. Academy of Management Journal, 33(1), 7–41.Google Scholar
Jacobs, G., Christe-Zeyse, J., Keegan, A., & Polos, L. (2008). Reactions to organizational identity threats in times of change: Illustrations from the German police. Corporate Reputation Review, 11(3), 245–261.Google Scholar
Jacobs, G., & Keegan, A. (2018). Ethical considerations and change recipients’ reactions: ‘It’s not all about me’. Journal of Business Ethics, 152(1), 73–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, G., Van Witteloostuijn, A., & Christe‐Zeyse, J. (2013). A theoretical framework of organizational change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 26(5), 772–792.Google Scholar
Jansen, K. J., Shipp, A. J., & Michael, J. H. (2016). Champions, converts, doubters, and defectors: The impact of shifting perceptions on momentum for change. Personnel Psychology, 69(3), 673–707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Judge, T. A., Thoresen, C. J., Pucik, V., & Welbourne, T. M. (1999). Managerial coping with organizational change: A dispositional perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(1), 107–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalimo, R., Taris, T. W., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2003). The effects of past and anticipated future downsizing on survivor well-being: An equity perspective. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 8(2), 91–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaltiainen, J., Lipponen, J., Fugate, M., & Vakola, M. (2020). Spiraling work engagement and change appraisals: A three-wave longitudinal study during organizational change. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 25(4), 255–284.Google Scholar
Kao, R. H. (2017). The relationship between work characteristics and change-oriented organizational citizenship behavior: A multi-level study on transformational leadership and organizational climate in immigration workers. Personnel Review, 46(8), 1890–1914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katzenbach, J. R., & Smith, D. K. (1993). The wisdom of teams. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.Google ScholarPubMed
Kiefer, T. (2005). Antecedents and consequences of negative emotions in ongoing change. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(8), 875–897.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleingeld, A., van Mierlo, H., & Arends, L. (2011). The effect of goal-setting on group performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(6), 1289–1304.Google Scholar
Konlechner, S., Latzke, M., Güttel, W. H., & Höfferer, E. (2019). Prospective sensemaking, frames and planned change: A comparison of change trajectories in two hospital units. Human Relations, 72(4), 706–732.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotter, J. P. (1995). Leading change: Why transformation efforts fail. Harvard Business Review, 73, 59–67.Google Scholar
Kubler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. New York: Touchstone.Google Scholar
Kunisch, S., Bartunek, J. M., Mueller, J., & Huy, Q. N. (2017). Time in strategic change research. Academy of Management Annals, 11(2), 1005–1064.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewin, K. (1947a). Frontiers in group dynamics: Concept, method and reality in social science, equilibrium and social change. Human Relations, 1(1), 5–41.Google Scholar
Lewin, K. (1947b). Frontiers in group dynamics: II. Channels of group life; social planning and action research. Human Relations, 1(2), 143–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewin, K. (1947c). Group decision and social change. In Newcomb, T. M. & Hartley, E. L. (eds.), Readings in social psychology (pp. 330–344). New York: Henry Holt.Google Scholar
Lovallo, D., & Kahneman, D. (2003). Delusions of success. Harvard Business Review, 81(7), 56–63.Google ScholarPubMed
McGrath, J. E. (1988). The social psychology of time. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Neuman, G. A., Edwards, J. E., & Raju, N. S. (1989). Organizational development interventions: A meta-analysis of their effects on satisfaction and other attitudes. Personnel Psychology, 42(3), 461–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oreg, S. (2003). Resistance to change: Developing an individual difference measure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 680–693.Google Scholar
Oreg, S., Bartunek, J. M., Lee, G., & Do, B. (2018). An affect-based model of recipients’ responses to organizational change events. Academy of Management Review, 43(1), 65–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oreg, S., Vakola, M., & Armenakis, A. (2011). Change recipients’ reactions to organizational change: A 60-year review of quantitative studies. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 47(4), 461–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrou, P., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2018). Crafting the change: The role of employee job crafting behaviors for successful organizational change. Journal of Management, 44(5), 1766–1792.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, A. M., Woodman, R. W., & Cameron, K. S. (2001). Studying organizational change and development: Challenges for future research. Academy of Management Journal, 44(4), 697–713.Google Scholar
Piderit, S. K. (2000). Rethinking resistance and recognizing ambivalence: A multidimensional view of attitudes toward organizational change. Academy of Management Review, 25(4), 783–794.Google Scholar
Ployhart, R. E., & Vandenberg, R. J. (2010). Longitudinal research: The theory, design, and analysis of change. Journal of Management, 36(1), 94–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rafferty, A. E., & Griffin, M. A. (2006). Perceptions of organizational change: A stress and coping perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 1154–1162.Google Scholar
Rafferty, A. E., & Jimmieson, N. L. (2017). Subjective perceptions of organizational change and employee resistance to change: Direct and mediated relationships with employee well-being. British Journal of Management, 28(2), 248–264.Google Scholar
Rafferty, A. E., Jimmieson, N. L., & Armenakis, A. A. (2013). Change readiness: A multilevel review. Journal of Management, 39(1), 110–135.Google Scholar
Rafferty, A. E., & Restubog, S. L. D. (2010). The impact of change process and context on change reactions and turnover during a merger. Journal of Management, 36(5), 1309–1338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rafferty, A. E., & Restubog, S. L. D. (2017). Why do employees’ perceptions of their organization’s change history matter? The role of change appraisals. Human Resource Management, 56(3), 533–550.Google Scholar
Reay, T., Golden-Biddle, K., & Germann, K. (2006). Legitimizing a new role: Small wins and microprocesses of change. Academy of Management Journal, 49(5), 977–998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, D. M., & Goldwasser, C. (1998). Be a model leader of change. Management Review, 87, 41–45.Google Scholar
Schweiger, D. M., & DeNisi, A. S. (1991). Communication with employees following a merger: A longitudinal field study. Academy of Management Journal, 34(1), 110–135.Google Scholar
Staw, B. M., Sandelands, L. E., & Dutton, J. E. (1981). Threat rigidity effects in organizational behavior: A multilevel analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(4), 501–524.Google Scholar
Stouten, J., Rousseau, D. M., & De Cremer, D. (2018). Successful organizational change: Integrating the management practice and scholarly literature. Academy of Management Annals, 12(2), 752–788.Google Scholar
Uhlaner, R., & West, A. (2011). McKinsey global survey results: Organizing for M&A. McKinsey Quarterly, December, 1–8.Google Scholar
Wanberg, C. R., & Banas, J. T. (2000). Predictors and outcomes of openness to changes in a reorganizing workplace. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(1), 132–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weick, K. E. (1988). Enacted sensemaking in crisis situations. Journal of Management Studies, 25(4), 305–317.Google Scholar
Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations, vol. 3. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Whetten, D. A. (1989). What constitutes a theoretical contribution? Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 490–495.Google Scholar
Wiedner, R., Barrett, M., & Oborn, E. (2017). The emergence of change in unexpected places: Resourcing across organizational practices in strategic change. Academy of Management Journal, 60(3), 823–854.Google Scholar
Zimbardo, P., & Boyd, J. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271–1288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×