Development and Use of a Classroom Observation Instrument to Investigate Teaching for Meaning in Diverse Classrooms

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511616419.005

5 - Development and Use of a Classroom Observation Instrument to Investigate Teaching for Meaning in Diverse Classrooms

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 23 November 2009

Stephanie L. Knight and

Edited by

Roland G. Tharp and

Stephanie L. Knight: Affiliation:
Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University
Robert G. Smith: Affiliation:
Superintendent, Arlington Public Schools, Arlington, Virginia
Hersh C. Waxman: Affiliation:
University of Houston
Roland G. Tharp: Affiliation:
University of California, Santa Cruz
R. Soleste Hilberg: Affiliation:
University of California, Santa Cruz

Book contents

Get access

Summary

As the number of states and local school districts requiring high-stakes testing grows, controversy intensifies around the issue of the impact of such testing on the quality of instruction and on the education of the students who ostensibly are its intended beneficiaries (National Research Council, 1999; Sadowski, 2000). Many parents, students, and educators express concerns about the emphasis on improving the passing rates on high-stakes tests (Rose & Gallup, 2000; Schrag, 2000). They fear that such a focus militates against good instruction and tends to reduce the scope of the curriculum to that which is tested. Implicit in these concerns is the assumption that getting good results on the tests requires repetitive drill and practice on isolated skills and content to the exclusion of what might be termed teaching for meaning. These concerns also assume that teaching for meaning will result in poorer performance on the tests.

Particularly troubling is the effect on those students who experience difficulty with learning, live in high-poverty conditions, and represent a diversity of cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Educators use various terms to describe these students (at risk, educationally disadvantaged, marginal, etc.) to capture the disconnection between students and the conditions designed for their learning. Typically, although attention may be directed to their needs, little effort has been expended to identify and build on the assets that they bring with them from their diverse backgrounds (Levin, 1987).

Type: Chapter
Information: Observational Research in U.S. Classrooms
New Approaches for Understanding Cultural and Linguistic Diversity
, pp. 97 - 121

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511616419.005 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Banks, J. A. (1997). Educating citizens in a multicultural society. New York: Teachers College Press

Brophy, J. E., & Good, T. L. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 328–375). New York: Macmillan

Cawelti, G. (1994). High school restructuring: A national study. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service

Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 392–431). New York: Macmillan

Ferguson, R. (1998a). Can schools narrow the Black–White test score gap? In C. Jencks & M. Phillips (Eds.), The Black–White test score gap (pp. 318–374). Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution

Ferguson, R. (1998b). Teachers' perceptions and expectations and the Black–White test score gap. In C. Jencks & M. Phillips (Eds.), The Black–White test score gap (pp. 273–317). Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution

Forsyth, J. (1998). Comprehensive models for school improvement. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service

Foster, M., & Peele, T. (1999). Teaching Black males: Lessons from the experts. In V. Polite & J. Davis (Eds.), African American males in school and society (pp. 8– 19). New York: Teachers College Press

Fullan, M. (1993). Change forces. New York: Falmer

Gagne, E. (1985). The cognitive psychology of school learning. Boston: Little, Brown

Gallagher, C. (2000). A seat at the table: Teachers reclaiming assessment through rethinking accountability. Phi Delta Kappan, 81(7), 502–507Google Scholar

Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (2000). Looking in classrooms (8th ed.). New York: Longman

Haberman, M. (1991). The pedagogy of poverty versus good teaching. Phi Delta Kappan, 73(4), 290–294Google Scholar

Jencks, C. (1998). Racial bias in testing. In C. Jencks & M. Phillips (Eds.), The Black–White test score gap (pp. 55–85). Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution

Jones, M., & Vesilind, E. (1996). Putting practice into theory: Changes in the orga-nization of preservice teachers' pedagogical knowledge. American Educational Research Journal, 33(1), 91–118CrossRef Google Scholar

Knapp, M. S. (1992). Academic challenge in high-poverty classrooms. Phi Delta Kappan, 76, 700–706Google Scholar

Knapp, M. S., & Adelman, N. E. (1995). Teaching for meaning in high-poverty classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press

Knapp, M. S., & Shields, P. (1990). Better schooling for the children of poverty: Alternatives to conventional wisdom. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan

Knight, S. L., & Ackerman, C. (1997). Teaching for Meaning (TFM) Classroom Observation Manual. College Station: Texas A&M University

Knight, S. L., & Smith, R. G. (1995, April). Examining the effects of teacher inquiry on teacher perceptions and cognitions. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco

Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African; American children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Levin, H. (1987). Accelerated schools for disadvantaged students. Educational Leadership, 44(6), 19–21Google Scholar

Linn, R. (2000). Assessments and accountability. Educational Researcher, 29(2), 4–16Google Scholar

Losey, K. (1995). Mexican American students and classroom interaction: An overview and critique. Review of Educational Research, 65(3), 283–318CrossRef Google Scholar

Madden, N. A., Slavin, R. E., Karweit, N. L., Dolan, L. J., & Wasik, B. A. (1993). Success for all: Longitudinal effects of a restructuring program for inner-city elementary schools. American Educational Research Journal, 30(1), 123–148CrossRef Google Scholar

McIntyre, E., Roseberry, A., & Gonzalez, N. (2001). Classroom diversity: Connecting curriculum to students' lives. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann

Mehan, H., Lintz, A., Okamoto, D., & Wills, J. (1995). Ethnographic studies of multicultural education in schools. In J. Banks & C. Banks (Eds.), Handbook on research of multicultural education (pp. 129–144). New York: Macmillan

Murrel, P. (1999). Responsive teaching for African American male adolescents. In V. Polite & J. Davis (Eds.), African American males in schools and society (pp. 82–96). New York: Teachers College Press

National Council on Education Standards and Testing. (1992). Raising standards for American education: A report to Congress. Washington, DC: Author

National Research Council. (1999). High stakes: Testing for tracking, promotion, and graduation. Washington, DC: National Academy Press

Novak, J., & Gowin, D. (1989). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge University Press

Ogbu, J. (1992). Understanding cultural diversity and learning. Educational Researcher, 21(8), 5–14CrossRef Google Scholar

Olson, L. (1999). Shining a spotlight on results. Education Week, 17(17), 8–10Google Scholar

Pianta, R., & Walsh, D. (1996). High-risk children in schools. New York: Routledge

Polite, V., & Davis, J. (1999). African American males in school and society. New York: Teachers College Press

Rose, L., & Gallup, A. (2000). The 32nd annual Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup Poll of the public's attitudes toward the public schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 82(1), 41–58CrossRef Google Scholar

Sadowski, M. (2000). Are high-stakes tests worth the wager?Harvard Education Letter, 16(5), 1–5Google Scholar

Schaffer, E., Nesselrodt, P., & Stringfield, S. (1997). Impediments to reform. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service

Schrag, P. (2000). High stakes are for tomatoes. Atlantic Monthly, 286(2), 19–21Google Scholar

Sinclair, R. L. (1993, October). The National Coalition Problem Solving Process. Paper presented at the National Coalition for Equality in Education Facilitators and Superintendents' Meeting, Vail, CO.

Singham, M. (1998). The canary in the mine: The achievement gap between Black and White students. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(1), 9–15Google Scholar

Slavin, R. E., Karweit, N., & Madden, N. A. (1989). Effective programs for students at risk. New York: Allyn & Bacon

Smith, R. G., & Knight, S. L. (1997). Collaborative inquiry: Teacher leadership in the practice of creative intelligence. In B. Sinclair & W. Ghory (Eds.), Reaching and teaching all children: Grassroots efforts that work (pp. 39–60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press

Tharp, R. G. (1997). From at-risk to excellence: Research, theory, and principles for practice (Research Report No. 1). Santa Cruz: Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence, University of California

Tharp, R. G., Estrada, P., Dalton, S. S., & Yamauchi, L. (2000). Teaching transformed: Achieving excellence, fairness, inclusion, and harmony. Boulder, CO: Westview Press

Waxman, H., & Padrón, Y. (1995). Improving the quality of classroom instruction for students at risk of failure in urban schools. Peabody Journal of Education, 70(2), 44–65CrossRef Google Scholar

Woods, B. (2000). Relationship between conceptual change of teachers and classroom behaviors. Unpublished dissertation, Texas A&M University