Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-06T07:55:29.366Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

20 - HIV and AIDS

from Part III - Working with specific units

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 December 2009

Geoffrey Lloyd
Affiliation:
Priory Hospital, London
Elspeth Guthrie
Affiliation:
University of Manchester
Get access

Summary

Introductory topics

Introduction

The psychiatric care of individuals infected with HIV encompasses a wide range of issues which, as for other chronic and life-threatening illnesses, include biological, social and psychological factors (Table 20.1). Due to the diversity of these issues, deliverance of mental health care for those with HIV infection or disease is best carried out in a multidisciplinary team setting involving co-ordination and co-operation between HIV physicians, social services, community mental health teams, child and adolescent mental health services and voluntary sector organizations as appropriate. HIV liaison psychiatry attempts to integrate the medical, psychological and social aspects of HIV and can make a unique contribution to the care and management of affected individuals (Clark & Everall 1997). In this chapter, the main aspects of HIV in the adult population and its effects on mental state are considered in terms of epidemiology, clinical manifestations and management. In addition, the impact of HIV on the mental health of two special populations – children and older adults – is considered briefly.

Epidemiology of psychiatric morbidity in those infected with HIV

Routes of transmission of HIV include sexual transmission, transmission in blood/blood products, and vertical transmission, from mother to child. In the UK the groups with the highest prevalence are homosexual men, sub-Saharan African populations (primarily due to heterosexual transmission), and intravenous drug users. Recent figures suggest that the prevalence of HIV infection in the UK is 0.11% as compared to 0.35% in Western Europe (WHO fact sheet 2000).

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adcock, J. and Stewart-Moore, J. (1996). Pre-test counselling for HIV. British Journal of Midwifery, 4, 196–8.Google Scholar
Allin, M., Reeves, I., Tennant-Flowers, M., et al. (2003). Frequency of serious psychiatric adverse events with efavirenz. 5th International Workshop on Adverse Drug Reactions and Lipodystrophy, Paris, France. Antiviral Therapy, 8, L85.
Ammassari, A., Trotta, M. P., Murri, R., et al. (2002). Correlates and predictors of adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy: overview of published literature. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 31(Suppl. 3), S123–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anonymous. (1988). Manic syndrome associated with zidovudine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 260, 3587–8.
Anonymous. (2002). Depression is common among AIDS patients. Psych consult often is necessary. Aids Alert, 17, 153–4.
Antoniou, T. and Tseng, A. (2002). Interactions between recreational drugs and antiretroviral agents. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 36, 1598–613.Google Scholar
Ayuso, J. L. (1994). Use of psychotropic drugs in patients with HIV infection. Drugs, 47, 599–610.Google Scholar
Beckett, A. and Shenson, D. (1993). Suicide risk in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 1, 27–35.Google Scholar
Belman, A. (1992). AIDS and the child's CNS. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 39, 691–714.Google Scholar
Bing, E. G., Burnam, M. A., Longshore, D., et al. (2001). Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 721–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanch, J., Corbella, B., Garcia, F., et al. (2001). Manic syndrome associated with efavirenz overdose. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 33, 270–1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanch, J., Rousaud, A., Hautzinger, M., et al. (2002). Assessment of the efficacy of a cognitive-behavioural group psychotherapy programme for HIV-infected patients referred to a consultation-liaison psychiatry department. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 71, 77–84.Google Scholar
Blechner, M. J. (ed). (1997). Hope and Mortality: Psychodynamic approaches to AIDS and HIV. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press.
Brashers, D. E., Neidig, J. L., Cardillo, L. W., et al. (1999). ‘In an important way, I did die’: uncertainty and revival in persons living with HIV or AIDS. AIDS Care, 11, 201–19.Google Scholar
Breitbart, W., Marotta, R., Platt, M., et al. (1996). A double-blind trial of haloperidol, chlorpromazine and lorazepam in the treatment of delirium in hospitalised AIDS patients. American Journal of Psychology, 153, 231–7.Google Scholar
Breitbart, W., Rosenfeld, B., Kaim, M., et al. (2001). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of psychostimulants for the treatment of fatigue in ambulatory patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. Archives of Internal Medicine, 161, 411–20.Google Scholar
Brouillette, M., Chouinard, G. and Lalonde, R. (1994). Didanosine-induced mania in HIV infection. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1839–40.Google Scholar
Burch, E. and Montoya, J. (1989). NMS in an AIDS patient. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9, 228–9.Google Scholar
Burnam, M. A., Bing, E. G., Morton, S. C., et al. (2001). Use of mental health and substance abuse services among adults with HIV in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 729–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cadwell, S. A., Burnham, R. A. and Forstein, M. (eds). (1994). Therapists on the Front Line: Psychotherapy with Gay Men in the Age of Aids. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
Catalan, J. (1999). Psychological problems in people with HIV infection. In Mental Health and HIV Infection, ed. Catalan, J.. London: UCL Press, pp. 21–46.
Catalan, J., Klimes, I., Day, A., et al. (1992). The psychosocial impact of HIV infection in gay men: a controlled investigation and factors associated with psychiatric morbidity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 774–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catalan, J., Burgess, A. and Klimes, I. (1995). Psychological Medicine of HIV Infection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Clark, B. and Everall, I. P. (1997). What is the role of the HIV liaison psychiatrist?Genitourinary Medicine, 73, 568–70.Google Scholar
Clifford, D. B., McArthur, J. C., Schifitto, G., et al. (2002). A randomized clinical trial of CPI-1189 for HIV-associated cognitive-motor impairment. Neurology, 59, 1568–73.Google Scholar
Cochand, P. and Bovet, P. (1998). HIV infection and suicide risk: an epidemiological inquiry among male homosexuals in Switzerland. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 3, 230–4.Google Scholar
Cohen, M., Hoffman, R. G., Cromwell, C., et al. (2002). The prevalence of distress in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Psychosomatics, 43, 10–15.Google Scholar
Cohn, J. A. (2002). HIV-1 infection in injection drug users. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, 16, 745–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colebunders, R., Hilbrands, R., Roo, A., et al. (2002). Neuropsychiatric reaction induced by abacavir. American Journal of Medicine, 113, 616.Google Scholar
Coleman, R. M., Curtis, D. and Feinmann, C. (1988). Perception of risk of HIV infection by injecting drug users and effects on medical clinic attendance. British Journal of Addiction, 83, 1325–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compton, W. M., Cottler, L. B., Shillington, A. M., et al. (1995). Is antisocial personality disorder associated with increased HIV risk behaviors in cocaine users?Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 37, 37–43.Google Scholar
Dannenberg, A. L., McNeil, J. G., Brundage, J. F., et al. (1996). Suicide and HIV infection. Mortality follow-up of 4147 HIV-seropositive military service applicants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 276, 1743–6.
Dausey, D. J. and Desai, R. A. (2003). Psychiatric comorbidity and the prevalence of HIV infection in a sample of patients in treatment for substance abuse. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191, 10–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garza, C. L., Paoletti-Duarte, S., Garcia-Martin, C., et al. (2001). Efavirenz-induced psychosis. AIDS, 15, 1911–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maat, M. M., Hoetelmans, R. M., Math, R. A., et al. (2001). Drug interaction between St John's wort and nevirapine. AIDS, 15, 420–1.Google Scholar
Demmer, C. (2001). Dealing with AIDS-related loss and grief in a time of treatment advances. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Care, 18, 35–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simone, C., Catania, S., Trinchieri, V., et al. (1988). Amelioration of the depression in HIV-infected subjects with L-acetyl carntine therapy. Journal of Drug Development, 3, 163–6.Google Scholar
Dettling, M., Muller-Oerlinghausen, B. and Britsch, P. (1988). Clozapine treatment of HIV-associated psychosis – too much bone marrow toxicity?Pharmacopsychiatry, 31, 156–7.Google Scholar
Douaihy, A. and Singh, N. (2001). Factors affecting quality of life in patients with HIV infection. AIDS Reader, 11, 450–4, 460–1, 475.Google Scholar
Dresser, G. K., Spence, J. D. and Bailey, D. G. (2000). Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic consequences and clinical relevance of cytochrome P450 3A4 inhibition. Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 38, 41–57.Google Scholar
Egan, V., Crawford, J. R., Brettle, R. P., et al. (1990). The Edinburgh cohort of HIV positive drug users: current intellectual function is impaired, but not due to early AIDS dementia complex. AIDS, 4, 651–6.Google Scholar
Eichler, M. R., Ray, S. M. and del Rio, C. (2002). The effectiveness of HIV post-test counselling in determining healthcare-seeking behavior. AIDS, 16, 943–5.Google Scholar
Ellen, S. R., Judd, F. K., Mijch, Am., et al. (1999). Secondary mania in patients with HIV infection. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 33, 353–60.Google Scholar
Elliott, A. J. and Roy-Byrne, P. P. (2000). Mirtazapine for depression in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (letter). Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20, 265–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliott, A. J., Uldall, K. K., Bergam, K., et al. (1998). Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of paroxetine versus imipramine in depressed HIV-positive outpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 367–72.Google Scholar
Elliott, A. J., Russo, J., Bergam, K., et al. (1999). Antidepressant efficacy in HIV-seropositive outpatients with major depressive disorder: an open trial of nefazodone. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 226–31.Google Scholar
Ellis, D., Collis, I. and King, M. (1994). A controlled comparison of HIV and general medical referrals to a liaison psychiatry service. AIDS Care, 6, 69–76.Google Scholar
El-Mallakh, R. S. (1991). Mania in AIDS: clinical significance and theoretical considerations. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 21, 383–91.Google Scholar
Everall, I. P. (1995). Neuropsychiatric aspects of HIV infection. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 58, 399–402.Google Scholar
Everall, I. P., Bell, C., Mallory, M., et al. (2002). Lithium ameliorates HIV-gp120-mediated neurotoxicity. Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, 21, 493–501.Google Scholar
Farinpour, R., Miller, E., Satz, P., et al. (2003). Psychosocial risk factors of HIV morbidity and mortality: findings from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Journal of Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 654–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernandez, F. and Levy, J. (1997). Efficacy of venlafaxine in HIV-depressive disorders. Psychosomatics, 38, 173–4.Google Scholar
Fichtner, C. G. and Braun, B. G. (1992). Bupropion-associated mania in a patient with HIV infection. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 12, 366–7.Google Scholar
Forstein, M. (1984). AIDS anxiety in the worried well. In Psychiatric Implications of AIDS, ed. Nichols, S. and Ostrow, D.. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, pp. 50–60.
Foster, R. (2005). General principles of precribing in HIV. In Maudsley Prescribing Guidelines 2005, 8th edn., ed. Taylor, D., Paton, C. and Kerwin, R.. London: Martin Dunitz.
Foster, R., Olajide, D. and Everall, I. P. (2003). Antiretroviral-therapy induced psychosis: case report and brief review of the literature. HIV Medicine, 4, 139–44.Google Scholar
Foster, R., Taylor, C. and Everall, I. P. (2004). More on abacavir-induced neuropsychiatric reactions. AIDS, 18, 2449.Google Scholar
Franco-Bronson, K. (1996). The management of treatment-resistant depression. Psychiatric Clinincs of North America, 19, 329–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grant, I. and Atkinson, J. H. (1995). Psychiatric aspects of acquired immune deficiency syndrome. In Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, Volume VI. ed. Kaplan, H. I. and Sadock, B. J.. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, pp. 1644–69.
Gray, F., Geny, C., Dournon, E., et al. (1991). Neuropathological evidence that zidovudine reduces incidence of HIV infection of the brain. Lancet, 337, 852–3.Google Scholar
Halman, M., Worth, J. L., Sanders, K., et al. (1993). Anticonvulsant use in the treatment of manic syndromes in patients with HIV1 infection. Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 54, 30–4.Google Scholar
Haney, M. (2002). Effects of smoked marijuana in healthy and HIV + marijuana smokers. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 42, 34S–40S.Google Scholar
Harvey, B. H., Meyer, C. L., Gallichio, V. S., et al. (2002). Lithium salts in AIDS and AIDS-related dementia. Psychopharmacological Bulletin, 36, 5–26.Google Scholar
Hasse, B., Gunthard, H. F., Bleiber, G., et al. (2005). Efavirenz intoxication due to slow hepatic metabolism. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 40 (3), 22–3.Google Scholar
Hennessy, M., Kelleher, D., Spiers, J. P., et al. (2002). St Johns wort increases expression of P-glycoprotein: implications for drug interactions. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 53, 75–82.Google Scholar
Hermoine Lyall, E. G. (2002). Paediatric HIV in 2002 – a treatable and preventable infection. Journal of Clinical Virology, 25, 107–19.Google Scholar
Heseltine, P. N., Goodkin, K., Atkinson, J. H., et al. (1998). Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of peptide T for HIV-associated cognitive impairment. Archives of Neurology, 55, 41–51.Google Scholar
Hesse, L. M., Molke, L. L., Shader, R. I., et al. (2001). Ritonavir, efavirenz, and nelfinavir inhibit CYP2B6 activity in vitro: potential drug interactions with bupropion. Drug Metabolism and Disposition, 29, 100–2.Google Scholar
Hilton, C. (1998). General paralysis of the insane and AIDS in old age psychiatry: epidemiology, clinical diagnosis, serology and ethics – the way forward. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 13, 875–85.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinkin, C. H., Castellon, S. A., Atkinson, J. H., et al. (2001). Neuropsychiatric aspects of HIV infection among older adults. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 54, S44–52.Google Scholar
Horwath, E. and Cournos, F. (1999). NMS and HIV. Psychiatric Services, 50, 564.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyt, G. (2004). Life after Sustiva. Survivors News (Atlanta Ga) 15 (3), 8.Google Scholar
Hriso, E., Kuhn, T. and Maslev, J. (1991). Extrapyramidal symptoms due to dopamine blocking agents in patients with AIDS encephalopathy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1558–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, D. B., Salinas, P. and Dougherty, D. (2001). Feigned HIV in a malingering patient. Psychosomatics, 42, 438–9.Google Scholar
Hull, J. W., Clarkin, J. F. and Yeomans, F. (1993). Borderline personality disorder and impulsive sexual behavior. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 44, 1000–2.Google Scholar
Ickovics, J. R., Cameron, A., Zackin, R., et al. (2002). Consequences and determinants of adherence to antiretroviral medication: results from Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group protocol 370. Antiviral Therapies, 7, 185–93.Google Scholar
James, J. S. (2000). St John's wort warning: do not combine with protease inhibitors, NNTRIs. AIDS Treatment News, 337, 3–5.Google Scholar
Janssen, R. S., Nwanyanwu, O. C., Selik, R. M., et al. (1992). Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus encephalopathy in the United States. Neurology, 42, 1472–6.Google Scholar
Jewett, J. F. and Hecht, F. M. (1993). Preventive health care, for adults with HIV infection. Journal of the American Medical Association, 269, 1144–53.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. G., Williams, J. B., Rabkin, J. G., et al. (1995). Axis I psychiatric symptoms associated with HIV infection and personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 551–4.Google Scholar
Katz, M. H., Douglas, J. M. Jr, Bolan, G. A., et al. (1996). Depression and use of mental health services among HIV-infected men. AIDS Care, 8, 433–42.Google Scholar
Kessing, L., LaBianca, J. H. and Bolwig, T. G. (1994). HIV-stupor treated with ECT. Convulsive Therapy, 10, 232–5.Google Scholar
Kilbourne, A. M., Justice, A. C., Rabeneck, L., et al., VACS 3 Project Team. (2001). General medical and psychiatric comorbidity among HIV-infected veterans in the post-HAART era. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 54, S22–8.Google Scholar
Klerman, G. L., Weissman, M. M., Rounsaville, B. J., et al. (1984). Interpersonal Psychotherapy of Depression.New York: Basic Books.
Komiti, A., Judd, F., Grech, P., et al. (2001). Suicidal behaviour in people with HIV/AIDS: a review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 747–57.Google Scholar
Kresina, T. F., Flexner, C. W., Sinclair, J., et al. (2002). Alcohol use and HIV pharmacotherapy. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 18, 757–70.Google Scholar
Lang, J. P., Halleguen, O., Picard, A., et al. (2001). Apropos of atypical melancholia with Sustiva (efavirenz) (article in French). Encephale, 27, 290–3.Google Scholar
Lederer, B. (2004). The Great Depression. www.poz.com.
Lee, M. R., Cohen, L., Hadley, S. W., et al. (1999). Cognitive-behavioural group therapy with medication for depressed gay men with AIDS or symptomatic HIV infection. Psychiatric Services, 50, 948–52.Google Scholar
Lera, G. and Zirulnik, J. (1999). Pilot study with clozapine in patients with HIV-associated psychosis and drug-induced parkinsonism. Movement Disorders, 14, 128–31.3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, G. M., Nelson, L. A., DeVane, C. L., et al. (2001). A pharmacokinetic drug-drug interaction study of venlafaxine and indinavir. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 35, 62–71.Google Scholar
Lutgendorf, S. K., Antonni, M. H., Ironson, G., et al. (1997). Cognitive-behavioural stress management decreases dysphoric mood and herpes simplex virus-type 2 antibody titres in symptomatic HIV-seropositive gay men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 31–43.Google Scholar
Lutgendorf, S. K., Antonni, M. H., Ironson, G., et al. (1998). Changes in cognitive coping skills and social support during cognitive behavioural stress management intervention and distress outcomes in symptomatic immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seropositive gay men. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60, 204–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyketsos, C., Fishman, M., Hotton, H., et al. (1997). The effectiveness of psychiatric treatment for HIV-infected individuals. Psychosomatics, 38, 423–32.Google Scholar
Maldarelli, F. (2003). HIV-1 fitness and replication capacity: what are they and can they help in patient management?Current Infectious Disease Reports, 5, 77–84.Google Scholar
Manning, D., Jacobsberg, L., Erhart, S., et al. (1990). The efficacy of imipramine in the treatment of HIV-related depression. International Conference on Aids (Abstract Number Th.B. 32), 20–23 June, 1990.Google Scholar
Markowitz, J. C., Klerman, G. L., Clougherty, K. F., et al. (1995). Individual psychotherapies for depressed HIV-positive patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1504–9.Google Scholar
Marzuk, P. M., Tierney, H., Tardiff, K., et al. (1988). Increased risk of suicide in persons with AIDS. Journal of the American Medical Association, 259, 1333–7.Google Scholar
Marzuk, P. M., Tardiff, K., Leon, A. C., et al. (1997). HIV seroprevalence among suicide victims in New York City, 1991–1993. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1720–5.Google Scholar
Mauri, M. C., Fabiano, L., Bravin, S., et al. (1997). Schizophrenic patients before and after HIV infection: a case-control study. Encephale, 23, 437–41.Google Scholar
Maxwell, S., Scheftner, W. A., Kessler, H. A., et al. (1988). Manic syndrome associated with zidovudine treatment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 259, 3406–7.Google Scholar
McArthur, J. C., Hoover, D. R., Bacellar, M., et al. (1993). Dementia in AIDS patients: incidence and risk factors. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Neurology, 43, 2245–52.Google Scholar
McHenry, A., Evans, B. G., Sinka, K., et al. (2002). Numbers of adults with diagnosed HIV infection 1996–2005 – adjusted totals and extrapolations for England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Communicable Diseases and Public Health, 5 (2), 97–100.Google Scholar
Mehta, S., Moore, R. and Graham, N. (1997). Potential factors affecting adherence with HIV therapy. AIDS, 11, 1655–70.Google Scholar
Meursing, K. and Sibindi, F. (2000). HIV counselling – a luxury or necessity?Health Policy and Planning, 15 (1), 17–23.Google Scholar
Meyer, J. M., Marsh, J. and Simpson, G. (1998). Differential sensitivities to risperidone and olanzapine in a human immunodeficiency virus patient. Biological Psychology, 44, 791–4.Google Scholar
Miller, J. L. (2000). Interaction between indinavir and St. John's wort reported. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 57(7), 625–6.Google Scholar
Milton, M. (1994). The case for existential therapy in HIV-related psychotherapy. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 7, 367–74.Google Scholar
Moreno, A., Labelle, C. and Samet, J. H. (2003). Recurrence of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms after initiation of antiretrovirals including efavirenz: a report of two cases. HIV Medicine, 4, 302–4.Google Scholar
Morlese, J. F., Qazi, N. A., Gazzard, B. G., et al. (2002). Nevirapine-induced neuropsychiatric complications, a class effect of non-nucleoside AIDS 16 1840#reverse transcriptase inhibitors?AIDS, 16 (13), 1840–1.Google Scholar
Murphy, D. A., Roberts, K. J., Martin, D. J., et al. (2000). Barriers to antiretroviral adherence among HIV-infected adults. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 14 (1), 47–58.Google Scholar
Navia, B. A., Dafni, U., Simpson, D., et al. (1998). A phase I/II trial of nimodipine for HIV-related neurological complications. Neurology, 51 (1), 221–8.Google Scholar
Ochitill, H. (1992). Prescribing antipsychotic drugs for patients with AIDS. Drug Therapy, 22, 37–41.Google Scholar
O'Dowd, M. A., McKegney, F. P. (1988). Manic syndrome associated with zidovudine (letter). Journal of the American Medical Association, 260, 3587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogborne, A. C., Smart, R. G., Weber, T., et al. (2000). Who is using cannabis as a medicine and why: an exploratory study. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 32 (4), 435–43.Google Scholar
Oyewole, D. (1996). Munchausen's syndrome and HIV infection: a trap for the unwary. British Journal of Clinical Practice, 50 (3), 176.Google Scholar
Penzak, S. R., Reddy, Y. S. and Grimsley, S. R. (2000). Depression in patients with HIV infection. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 57 (4), 376–86.Google Scholar
Perkins, D. O., Davidson, E. J., Leserman, J., et al. (1993). Personality disorder in patients infected with HIV: a controlled study with implications for clinical care. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150 (2), 309–15.Google Scholar
Perry, S. W., Jacobsberg, L., Fishman, B., et al. (1990). Psychiatric diagnosis before serological testing for HIV. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 89–93.Google Scholar
Perry, S. W., Fishman, B., Jacobsberg, L., et al. (1991). Effectiveness of psychoeducational intervention in reducing emotional distress after HIV antibody testing. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 143–7.Google Scholar
Peyriere, H., Mauboussin, J. M., Rouanet, I., et al. (2001). Management of sudden psychiatric disorders related to efavirenz. AIDS, 15 (10), 1323–4.Google Scholar
Pillay, D. (2001). The emergence and epidemiology of resistance in the nucleoside-experienced HIV-infected population. Antiviral Therapy, 6 (Suppl. 3), 15–24.Google Scholar
Piscitelli, S. C., Burstein, Ah., Chiatt, D., et al. (2000). Indinavir concentrations and St John's wort. Lancet, 355 (9203), 547–8.Google Scholar
Portegies, P., Gans, J., Lange, L. M., et al. (1989). Declining incidence of Aids dementia complex after introduction of zidovudine treatment. British Medical Journal, 299, 819–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poulsen, H. D. and Lublin, H. K. (2003). Efavirenz-induced psychosis leading to involuntary detention. AIDS, 17 (3), 451–3.Google Scholar
Power, C., Selnes, O. A., Grim, J. A., et al. (1995). The HIV dementia scale: a rapid screening test. Journal of Aids, 8, 273–6.Google Scholar
Power, R., Gore-Felton, C., Vosvick, M., et al. (2002). HIV: effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicine. Primary Care, 29 (2), 361–78.Google Scholar
Price, R. W. and Brew, B. J. (1988). The AIDS dementia complex. Journal of Infectious Disease, 158, 1079–83.Google Scholar
Puzantian, T. (2002). Central nervous system adverse effects with efavirenz: case report and review. Pharmacotherapy, 22 (7), 930–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabkin, J. G. and Harrison, W. M. (1990). Effect of imipramine on depression and immune status in a sample of men with HIV infection. American Journal of Psychology, 47, 495–7.Google Scholar
Rabkin, J. G., Rabkin, R., Harrison, W., et al. (1994a). Imipramine effects on mood in depressed patients with HIV illness. American Journal of Psychology, 151, 516–23.Google Scholar
Rabkin, R. G., Wagner, G. and Rabkin, R. (1994b). Effects of sertraline on mood and immune status in patients with major depression and HIV illness: an open trial. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55 (1), 433–9.Google Scholar
Rabkin, J. G., Ferrando, S. J., Jacobsberg, L. B., et al. (1997). Prevalence of Axis I disorders in an AIDS cohort: a cross-sectional, controlled study. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 38 (3), 146–54.Google Scholar
Rabkin, J. G., Wagner, G. J. and Rabkin, R. (1999). Fluoxetine treatment for depression in patients with HIV and AIDS: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. American Journal of Psychology, 156, 101–7.Google Scholar
Rabkin, J. G., Wagner, G. J. and Rabkin, R. (2000a). A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of testosterone therapy for HIV-positive men with hypogonadal symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 141–7.Google Scholar
Rabkin, J. G., Ferrando, S. J., Wagner, G., et al. (2000b). DHEA treatment of men and women with HIV infection. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 53–68.Google Scholar
Regier, D., Farmer, M. E., Rae, D. S., et al. (1993). One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States and sociodemographic characteristics: the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 88, 35–47.Google Scholar
Robinson, M. J. and Qaqish, R. B. (2002). Practical psychopharmacology in HIV-1 and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 25 (1), 149–75.Google Scholar
Romanelli, F., Jennings, H. R., Nath, A., et al. (2000). Therapeutic dilemma: the use of anticonvulsants in HIV-positive individuals. Neurology, 54 (7), 1404–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Cantwell, S. and Newman, P. A. (2000). HIV prevention programs with heterosexuals. AIDS, 14 (Suppl. 2), S59–67.Google Scholar
Roy, A. (2003). Characteristics of HIV patients who attempt suicide. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 107, 41–4.Google Scholar
Sabato, S., Wesselingh, S., Fuller, A., et al. (2002). Efavirenz-induced catatonia. AIDS, 16 (13), 1841–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sacktor, N. (2002). The epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated neurological disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Neurovirology, 8 (Suppl. 2), 115–21.Google Scholar
Schaerf, F. W., Miller, R. R., Lipsey, J. R., et al. (1989). ECT for major depression in four patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. American Journal of Psychology, 146 (6), 782–6.Google Scholar
Scott, S. and Constantine, L. M. (1999). The Lazarus syndrome: a second chance for life with HIV infection. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (Wash), 39 (4), 462–6.Google Scholar
Sewell, D. D. (1996). Schizophrenia and HIV. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 22 (3), 465–73.Google Scholar
Sewell, D. D., Jeste, D. V., McAdams, L. A., et al. (1994). Neuroleptic treatment of HIV-associated psychosis. HNRC Group. Neuropsychopharmacology, 10, 223–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sewell, M. C., Goggin, K. J., Rabkin, J. G., et al. (2000). Anxiety syndromes and symptoms among men with AIDS: a longitudinal controlled study. Psychosomatics, 41 (4), 294–300.Google Scholar
Shah, M. D. and Balderson, K. (2003). A manic episode associated with efavirenz therapy for HIV infection. AIDS, 17 (11), 1713–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shedlack, K. J., Soldato-Couture, C. S. and Swanson, C. L. (1994). Rapidly progressive tardive dyskinesias in AIDS. Biological Psychology, 35, 147–8.Google Scholar
Sikkema, K. J., Kalichman, S. C., Hoffmann, R., et al. (2000). Coping strategies and emotional wellbeing among HIV-infected men and women experiencing AIDS-related bereavement. AIDS Care, 12 (5), 613–24.Google Scholar
Singh, N., Squier, C., Sivek, C., et al. (1996). Determinants of compliance with antiretroviral therapy in patients with human immunodeficiency virus: prospective assessment with implications for enhancing compliance. AIDS Care, 8 (3), 261–9.Google Scholar
Singh, A. N., Golledge, H. and Catalan, J. (1997). Treatment of HIV-related psychotic disorders with risperidone: a series of 21 cases. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 42, 489–93.Google Scholar
Sirota, P., Stoler, M. and Meshulam, B. (1988). Major depression with psychotic features associated with acyclovir therapy. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy, 22 (4), 306–8.Google Scholar
Stevens, V. M., Neel, J. L. and Baker, D. L. (2000). Psychosis and nonadherence in an HIV-seropositive patient. AIDS Reader, 10 (10), 596–601.Google Scholar
Stoskopf, C. H., Kin, Y. K. and Glover, S. H. (2001). Dual diagnosis: HIV and mental illness, a population-based study. Community Mental Health Journal, 37, 469–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, V. E. (2002). Enhancing adherence to antiretrovirals: strategies and regimens. Medscape General Medicine, 4 (3), 22.Google Scholar
Tallis, F. (1995). Cognitive behavioural strategies for HIV sexual risk reduction. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 1, 267–77.Google Scholar
Tanquary, J. (1993). Lithium neurotoxicity at therapeutic levels in an AIDS patient. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 181 (8), 518–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trachman, S. B. (1992). Buspirone-induced psychosis in a human immunodeficiency virus infected man. Psychosomatics, 33, 332–5.Google Scholar
Treisman, G., Fishman, M., Lyketsos, G., et al. (1994). Evaluation and treatment of psychiatric disorders associated with HIV infection. In HIV, AIDS and the Brain, ed. Price, R. W. and Perry, W.. New York: Raven Press, pp. 239–50.
Trotta, M. P., Ammassari, A., Melzi, S., et al. (2002). Treatment-related factors and highly active antiretroviral therapy adherence. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 31 (Suppl. 3), S128–31.Google Scholar
Tuldra, A., Furnaz, C. R., Ferrer, M. J., et al. (2000). Prospective randomized two-arm controlled study to determine the efficacy of a specific intervention to improve long-term adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 25 (3), 221–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turjanski, N. and Lloyd, G. G. (2005). Psychiatric side effects of medication: recent developments. Advances in Psychiatric Treatments, 11, 58–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turrina, C., Fiorazzo, A., Turano, A., et al. (2001). Depressive disorders and personality variables in HIV positive and negative intravenous drug-users. Journal of Affective Disorders, 65 (1), 45–53.Google Scholar
Vermani, K. and Garg, S. (2002). Herbal medicines for sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 80 (1), 49–66.Google Scholar
Vitiello, B., Nurnam, M. A., Bing, E. G., et al. (2003). Use of psychotropic medications among HIV-infected patients in the United States. American Journal of Psychology, 160, 547–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, G. J., Rabkin, J. G and Rabkin, R. (2000). Effects of dextroamphetamine on depression and fatigue in men with HIV: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61 (6), 436–40.Google Scholar
Wagner, G. J., Kanouse, D. E., Koegel, P., et al. (2003). Adherence to HIV antiretrovirals among persons with serious mental illness. Aids Patient Care and STDs, 17 (4), 179–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, F., So, Y., Vittinghoff, E., et al. (1995). Incidence proportion of and risk factors for AIDS patients diagnosed with HIV dementia, central nervous system toxoplasmosis, and cryptococcal meningitis. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retroviruses, 8, 75–82.Google Scholar
Weiss, J. J. (1997). Psychotherapy with HIV-positive gay men: A psychodynamic perspective. American Journal of Psychology, 51 (3), 387–402.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. N. (1997). Interpersonal psychotherapy: current status. Keio Journal of Medicine, 46 (3), 105–10.Google Scholar
Welsby, P. D. and Richardson, A. M. (1995). Palliative aspects of adult acquired immune deficiency syndrome. In Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine, ed. Doyle, D., Hanks, G. W. C. and MacDonald, N.. Oxford:Oxford University Press, pp. 737–57.
Williams, A., George, K., Willard, S., et al. (2001). Is St John's wort safe in HIV?Advance for Nurse Practitioners, 9 (6), 31.Google Scholar
Wise, M. E., Mistry, K. and Reid, S. (2002). Drug points: neuropsychiatric complications of nevirapine treatment. British Medical Journal, 324 (7342), 879.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2000). Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections. Geneva:WHO.
Wright, J. M., Sachdev, P. S., Perkins, R. J., et al. (1989). Zidovudine related mania. Medical Journal of Australia, 150, 339–41.Google Scholar
Yeung, S. M. and Gibb, D. M. (2001). Paediatric HIV infection – diagnostic and epidemiological aspects. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 12 (9), 549–54.Google Scholar
Zilikis, N., Nimatoudis, I., Klosses, V., et al. (1998). Treatment with risperidone of an acute psychotic episode in a patient with AIDS. General Hospital Psychiatry, 20, 384–5.Google Scholar
Zisook, S., Peterkin, J., Goggin, K. J., et al. (1998). Treatment of major depression in HIV-seropositive men. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59, 217–24.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×