Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T15:50:06.077Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Part VI - Modelling of Glacially Induced Faults and Stress

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 December 2021

Holger Steffen
Affiliation:
Lantmäteriet, Sweden
Odleiv Olesen
Affiliation:
Geological Survey of Norway
Raimo Sutinen
Affiliation:
Geological Survey of Finland
Get access

Summary

As glacially induced faults are reactivated due to a combination of tectonic and glacially induced isostatic stresses, it is interesting to model the corresponding fault slip with dedicated models. The next chapters introduce first such a modelling approach with a well-established model of glacial isostatic adjustment followed by a review of stresses to be considered in sophisticated future modelling.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Amelung, F. and Wolf, D. (1994). Viscoelastic perturbations of the earth: significance of the incremental gravitational force in models of glacial isostasy. Geophysical Journal International, 117, 864879, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1994.tb02476.x.Google Scholar
Byerlee, J. D. (1978). Friction of rock. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 116, 615626, doi.org/10.1007/BF00876528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bängtsson, E. and Lund, B. (2008). A comparison between two solution techniques to solve the equations of glacially induced deformation of an elastic earth. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 75(4), 479502, doi.org/10.1002/nme.2268.Google Scholar
Cathles, L. M. III (1975). The Viscosity of the Earth’s Mantle. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Chinnery, M. A. (1975). The static deformation of an Earth with a fluid core: a physical approach. Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 42, 461475, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1975.tb05872.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dziewonski, A. M. and Anderson, D. L. (1981). Preliminary reference Earth model. Physics of the Earth and the Planetary Interiors, 25, 297356, doi.org/10.1016/0031-9201(81)90046-7.Google Scholar
Ellis, S., Beavan, J., Eberhart-Phillips, D. and Stöckhert, B. (2006). Simplified models of the Alpine Fault seismic cycle: stress transfer in the mid-crust. Geophysical Journal International, 166, 386402, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.02917.x.Google Scholar
Etchecopar, A., Vasseur, G. and Daignieres, M. (1981). An inverse problem in microtectonies for the determination of stress tensors from fault striation analysis. Journal of Structural Geology, 3(1), 5165, doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(81)90056-0.Google Scholar
Farrell, W. E. (1972). Deformation of the earth by surface loads. Reviews of Geophysics 10, 761797, doi.org/10.1029/RG010i003p00761.Google Scholar
Farrell, W. E. and Clark, J. A. (1976). On postglacial sea level. Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 46, 647667, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1976.tb01252.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FENCAT (2020). Fennoscandian earthquake catalogue for 1375–2014 (available at www.seismo.helsinki.fi/bulletin/list/catalog/FENCAT.html).Google Scholar
Hergert, T. and Heidbach, O. (2010). Slip-rate variability and distributed deformation in the Marmara Sea fault system. Nature Geoscience, 3, 132135, doi.org/10.1038/NGEO739.Google Scholar
Hetzel, R. and Hampel, A. (2005). Slip rate variations on normal faults during glacial-interglacial changes in surface loads. Nature, 435, 8184, doi.org/10.1038/nature03562.Google Scholar
Huang, P., Wu, P. and Steffen, H. (2019). In search of an ice history that is consistent with composite rheology in Glacial Isostatic Adjustment modelling. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 517, 2637, doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2019.04.011.Google Scholar
Ivins, E. R., James, T. S. and Klemann, V. (2003). Glacial isostatic stress shadowing by the Antarctic ice sheet. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108(B12), 2560, doi.org/10.1029/2002JB002182.Google Scholar
James, T. S. and Bent, A. L. (1994). A comparison of eastern North American seismic strain-rates to glacial rebound strain-rates. Geophysical Research Letters, 21, 21272130, doi.org/10.1029/94GL01854.Google Scholar
Johnston, A. C. (1987). Suppression of earthquakes by large continental ice sheets. Nature, 330, 467469, doi.org/10.1038/330467a0.Google Scholar
Johnston, P., Wu, P. and Lambeck, K. (1998). Dependence of horizontal stress magnitude on load dimension in glacial rebound models. Geophysical Journal International, 132, 4160, doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.1998.00387.x.Google Scholar
Kaufmann, G., Wu, P. and Ivins, E. R. (2005). Lateral viscosity variations beneath Anatarctica and their implications on regional rebound motions and seismotectonics. Journal of Geodynamics, 39, 165181, doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2004.08.009.Google Scholar
Klemann, V. and Wolf, D. (1999). Implications of a ductile crustal layer for the deformation caused by the Fennoscandian ice sheet. Geophysical Journal International, 139, 216226, doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246X.1999.00936.x.Google Scholar
Klemann, V., Wu, P. and Wolf, D. (2003). Compressible viscoelasticity: stability of solutions for homogeneous plane earth models. Geophysical Journal International, 153, 569585, doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246X.2003.01920.x.Google Scholar
Li, T., Wu, P., Wang, H. S. et al. (2020). Uncertainties of Glacial Isostatic Adjustment model predictions in North America associated with 3D structure. Geophysical Research Letters, 47, e2020GL087944, doi.org/10.1029/2020GL087944.Google Scholar
Lund, B. (2005). Effects of Deglaciation on the Crustal Stress Field and Implications for Endglacial Faulting: A Parametric Study of Simple Earth and Ice Models. SKB Technical Report TR-05-04, Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co., Stockholm, 68 pp.Google Scholar
Lund, B. (2006). Stress Variations during a Glacial Cycle at 500 m Depth in Forsmark and Oskarshamn: Earth Model Effects. SKB Report R-06-95, Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co., Stockholm, 38 pp.Google Scholar
Lund, B., Schmidt, P. and Hieronymus, C. (2009). Stress Evolution and Fault Stability during the Weichselian Glacial Cycle. SKB Technical Report TR-09-15, Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co., Stockholm, Sweden, 106 pp.Google Scholar
Milne, G. A. and Mitrovica, J. X. (1998). Postglacial sea-level change on a rotating Earth. Geophysical Journal International, 133, 119, doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246X.1998.1331455.x.Google Scholar
Munier, R., Adams, J., Brandes, C. et al. (2020). International Database of Glacially-Induced Faults. PANGAEA, doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.922705.Google Scholar
Peltier, W. R., Argus, D. F. and Drummond, R. (2015). Space geodesy constrains ice age terminal deglaciation: the global ICE-6G_C (VM5a) model. Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth, 120(1), 450487, doi.org/10.1002/2014JB011176.Google Scholar
Quinlan, G. (1984). Postglacial rebound and the focal mechanisms of eastern Canadian earthquakes. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 21, 10181023, doi.org/10.1139/e84-106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sauber, J., Plafker, G., Molnia, B. F. and Bryant, M. A. (2000). Crustal deformation associated with glacial fluctuations in the eastern Chugach Mountains, Alaska. Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth, 105, 80558077, doi.org/10.1029/1999JB900433.Google Scholar
Schmidt, P., Lund, B. and Hieronymus, C. (2012). Implementation of the glacial rebound prestress advection correction in general-purpose finite element analysis soft-ware: springs versus foundations. Computers & Geosciences, 40, 97106, doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2011.07.017.Google Scholar
Smith, C. A., Grigull, S. and Mikko, H. (2018). Geomorphic evidence of multiple surface ruptures of the Merasjärvi “postglacial fault”, northern Sweden. GFF, 140(4), 318322, doi.org/10.1080/11035897.2018.1492963.Google Scholar
Spada, G., Yuen, D. A., Sabadini, R. and Boschi, E. (1991). Lower-mantle viscosity constrained by seismicity around deglaciated regions. Nature, 351, 5355, doi.org/10.1038/351053a0.Google Scholar
Steffen, R., Wu, P., Steffen, H. and Eaton, D. W. (2014a). On the implementation of faults in finite-element glacial isostatic adjustment models. Computers & Geosciences, 62, 150159, doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2013.06.012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steffen, R., Wu, P., Steffen, H. and Eaton, D. W. (2014b). The effect of earth rheology and ice-sheet size on fault slip and magnitude of postglacial earthquakes. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 388, 7180, doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.11.058.Google Scholar
Steffen, R., Steffen, H., Wu, P. and Eaton, D. W. (2014c). Stress and fault parameters affecting fault slip magnitude and activation time during a glacial cycle. Tectonics, 33(7), 14611476, doi.org/10.1002/2013TC003450.Google Scholar
Steffen, R., Steffen, H., Wu, P. and Eaton, D. W. (2015). Reply to comment by Hampel et al. on “Stress and fault parameters affecting fault slip magnitude and activation time during a glacial cycle”. Tectonics, 34(11), 23592366, doi.org/10.1002/2015TC003992.Google Scholar
Steffen, H., Steffen, R. and Tarasov, L. (2019). Modelling of glacially-induced stress changes in Latvia, Lithuania and the Kaliningrad District of Russia. Baltica, 32(1), 7890, doi.org/10.5200/baltica.2019.1.7.Google Scholar
Steffen, R., Steffen, H., Weiss, R. et al. (2020). Early Holocene Greenland-ice mass loss likely triggered earthquakes and tsunami. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 546, 116443, doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116443.Google Scholar
Stein, S., Sleep, N. H., Geller, R. J. et al. (1979). Earthquakes along the passive margin of Eastern Canada. Geophysical Research Letters, 6, 537540, doi.org/10.1029/GL006i007p00537.Google Scholar
Walcott, R. I. (1970). Isostatic response to loading of the crust in Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 7, 716727, doi.org/10.1139/e70-070.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, H. and Wu, P. (2006). Effects of lateral variations in lithospheric thickness and mantle viscosity on glacially induced relative sea levels and long wavelength gravity field in a spherical, self-gravitating Maxwell Earth. Earth Planet Science Letters, 249(3), 368383, doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.07.011.Google Scholar
Wong, M. CK. and Wu, P. (2019). Using commercial finite-element packages for the study of Glacial Isostatic Adjustment on a compressible self-gravitating spherical earth – 1: harmonic loads. Geophysical Journal International, 217, 17981820, doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggz108.Google Scholar
Wu, P. (1992a). Viscoelastic vs. viscous deformation and the advection of pre-stress. Geophysical Journal International, 108, 3551, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1992.tb00844.x.Google Scholar
Wu, P. (1992b). Deformation of an incompressible viscoelastic flat earth with Power Law Creep: a Finite Element approach. Geophysical Journal International, 108, 136142, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1992.tb00837.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, P. (2004). Using commerical finite element packages for the study of earth deformations, sea levels and the state of stress. Geophysical Journal International, 158, 401408, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02338.x.Google Scholar
Wu, P. and Hasegawa, H. S. (1996a). Induced stresses and fault potential in Eastern Canada due to a disc load: a preliminary analysis. Geophysical Journal International, 125, 415430, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb00008.x.Google Scholar
Wu, P. and Hasegawa, H. S. (1996b). Induced stresses and fault potential in Eastern Canada due to a realistic load: a preliminary analysis. Geophysical Journal International, 127, 215229, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb01546.x.Google Scholar
Wu, P. and Johnston, P. (1998). Validity of using flat-earth finite element models in the study of postglacial rebound. In Wu, P., ed., Dynamics of the Ice Age Earth: A Modern Perspective. Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland, pp. 191202.Google Scholar
Wu, P. and Johnston, P. (2000). Can deglaciation trigger earthquakes in N. America? Geophysical Research Letters, 27, 13231326, doi.org/10.1029/1999GL011070.Google Scholar
Wu, P. and Mazzotti, S. (2007). Effects of a lithospheric weak zone on postglacial seismotectonics in Eastern Canada and Northeastern USA. In Stein, S. and Mazzotti, S., eds., Continental Intraplate Earthquakes: Science, Hazard and Policy Issues. Geological Society of America, Special Paper, Vol. 425, pp. 113128.Google Scholar
Wu, P. and Peltier, W. R. (1982). Viscous gravitational relaxation. Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 70, 435486, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1982.tb04976.x.Google Scholar
Wu, P., Johnston, P. and Lambeck, K. (1999). Postglacial rebound and fault instability in Fennoscandia. Geophysical Journal International, 139, 657670, doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.1999.00963.x.Google Scholar

References

Amadei, B. and Stephansson, O. (1997). Rock Stress and Its Measurement. Chapman & Hall, London.Google Scholar
Amini, S., Roberts, R., Raeesi, M. et al. (2018). Fault slip and identification of the second fault plane in the Varzeghan earthquake doublet. Journal of Seismology, 22, 815831, doi.org/10.1007/s10950-018-9734-0.Google Scholar
Barton, C. A. and Zoback, M. D. (1994). Stress perturbations associated with active faults penetrated by boreholes: possible evidence for near‐complete stress drop and a new technique for stress magnitude measurement. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99, 93739390, doi.org/10.1029/93JB03359.Google Scholar
Bell, J. S. and Wu, P. (1997). High horizontal stresses in Hudson Bay, Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 34(7), 949957, doi.org/10.1139/e17-079.Google Scholar
Brown, E.T. and Hoek, E. (1978). Trends in relationships between measured in-situ stresses and depth. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, 15(4), 211215, doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(78)91227-5.Google Scholar
Brudy, M., Zoback, M. D., Fuchs, K., Rummel, F. and Baumgartner, J. (1997). Estimation of the complete stress tensor to 8 km depth in the KTB scientific drill holes: implications for the crustal strength. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102, 1845318475, doi.org/10.1029/96JB02942.Google Scholar
Buchmann, T. J. and Connolly, P. T. (2007). Contemporary kinematics of the Upper Rhine Graben: a 3D finite element approach. Global and Planetary Change, 58(1), 287309, doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.02.012.Google Scholar
Buffett, B. and Becker, T. W. (2012). Bending stress and dissipation in subducted lithosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research – Solid Earth, 117, B05413, doi.org/10.1029/2012JB009205.Google Scholar
Byrkjeland, U., Bungum, H. and Eldholm, O. (2000). Seismotectonics of the Norwegian continental margin. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 105(B3), 62216236, doi.org/10.1029/1999JB900275.Google Scholar
Fejerskov, M. and Lindholm, C. (2000). Crustal stress in and around Norway: an evaluation of stress-generating mechanisms. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 167(1), 451467, doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.167.01.19.Google Scholar
Fjeldskaar, W., Lindholm, C., Dehls, J.F. and Fjeldskaar, I. (2000). Postglacial uplift, neotectonics and seismicity in Fennoscandia. Quaternary Science Reviews, 19(14), 14131422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gradmann, S., Olesen, O., Keiding, M. and Maystrenko, Y. (2018). The regional 3D stress field of Nordland, northern Norway – insights from numerical modelling. In O. Olesen et al., eds., Neotectonics in Nordland – Implications for petroleum exploration (NEONOR2). NGU Report 2018.010, 215–240.Google Scholar
Gritto, R., Dreger, D. Heidbach, O. and Hutchings, L. (2014). Towards the Understanding of Induced Seismicity in Enhanced Geothermal Systems. Technical Report DE-EE0002756, Array Information Technology, Greenbelt (MD), United States, doi.org/10.2172/1154937.Google Scholar
Grünthal, G. and Stromeyer, D. (1992). The recent crustal stress field in central Europe: trajectories and finite element modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research, 97(B8), 1180511820, doi.org/10.1029/91JB01963.Google Scholar
Harris, R. A. (1998). Introduction to special section: stress triggers, stress shadows, and implications for seismic hazard. Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth, 103(10), 2434724358, doi.org/10.1029/98JB01576.Google Scholar
Hast, N. (1958). The measurements of rock stress in mines. Swedish Geological Survey Publications 52-3. Stockholm, Sweden.Google Scholar
Heidbach, O., Hergert, T., Reiter, K. and Giger, S. (2014). Local Stress Field Sensitivity Analysis – Case Study Nördlich Lägern. Technical Report NAB 13-88, NAGRA – Nationale Genossenschaft für die Lagerung radioaktiver Abfälle.Google Scholar
Heidbach, O., Rajabi, M., Cui, X. et al. (2018). The World Stress Map database release 2016: crustal stress pattern across scales. Tectonophysics, 744, 484498, doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2018.07.007.Google Scholar
Henk, A. (2020). Numerical modelling of faults. In Tanner, D. and Brandes, C., eds., Understanding Faults – Detecting, Dating, and Modeling. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 147165, doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815985-9.00004-7.Google Scholar
Hergert, T., Heidbach, O., Reiter, K., Giger, S. B. and Marschall, P. (2015). Stress field sensitivity analysis in a sedimentary sequence of the Alpine foreland, northern Switzerland. Solid Earth, 6(2), 533552, doi.org/10.5194/se-6-533-2015.Google Scholar
Hergert, T. and Heidbach, O. (2011). Geomechanical model of the Marmara Sea region – II. 3-D contemporary background stress field. Geophysical Journal International, 185(3), 10901102, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2011.04992.x.Google Scholar
Hickman, S. and Zoback, M. (2004). Stress orientations and magnitudes in the SAFOD pilot hole. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, doi.org/10.1029/2004GL020043.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janutyte, I. and Lindholm, C. (2017). Earthquake source mechanisms in onshore and offshore Nordland, northern Norway. Norwegian Journal of Geology, 97(3), 227239.Google Scholar
Jarosiński, M., Beekman, F., Bada, G. and Cloetingh, S. (2006). Redistribution of recent collision push and ridge push in Central Europe: insights from FEM modelling. Geophysical Journal International, 167, 860880, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.02979.x.Google Scholar
Johnston, P., Wu, P. and Lambeck, K. (1998). Dependence of horizontal stress magnitude on load dimension in glacial rebound models. Geophysical Journal International, 132, 4160, doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.1998.00387.x.Google Scholar
Klemann, V. and Wolf, D. (1998). Modelling of stresses in the Fennoscandian lithosphere induced by Pleistocene glaciations. Tectonophysics, 294(3-4), 291303, doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(98)00107-3.Google Scholar
Lister, C. R. B. (1986). Differential thermal stresses in the Earth. Geophysical Journal International, 86(2), 319330, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1986.tb03831.x.Google Scholar
Lund, B. (2005). Effects of Deglaciation on the Crustal Stress Field and Implications for Endglacial Faulting: A Parametric Study of Simple Earth and Ice Models. SKB Technical Report TR-05-04, Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co., Stockholm, 68 pp.Google Scholar
Lund, B., Schmidt, P. and Hieronymus, C. (2009). Stress Evolution and Fault Stability during the Weichselian Glacial Cycle. SKB Technical Report TR-09-15, Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co., Stockholm, 106 pp.Google Scholar
Martel, S. (2016). Effects of small-amplitude periodic topography on combined stresses due to gravity and tectonics. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 89, 113, doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2016.07.026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maury, J., Cornet, F. H. and Cara, M. (2014). Influence of the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary on the stress field northwest of the Alps. Geophysical Journal International, 199(2), 10061017, doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggu289.Google Scholar
McCutchen, W. R. (1982). Some elements of a theory for in-situ stress. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, 19(4), 201203, doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(82)90890-7.Google Scholar
Michalek, J., Tjåland, N., Drottning, A. et al. (2018). Report on seismic observations within the NEONOR2 project in the Nordland region, Norway (August 2013–May 2016). In O. Olesen et al., eds., Neotectonics in Nordland – Implications for Petroleum Exploration (NEONOR2). NGU Report 2018.010, 63 pp.Google Scholar
Myrvang, A. M. (1993). Rock stress and rock stress problems in Norway. In Hudson, J. A., ed., Comprehensive Rock Engineering, Vol. 3. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 461471.Google Scholar
Mondy, L. S., Rey, P. F., Duclaux, G. and Moresi, L. (2018). The role of asthenospheric flow during rift propagation and breakup. Geology, 46(2), 103106, doi.org/10.1130/G39674.1.Google Scholar
Naliboff, J. B., Lithgow-Bertelloni, C., Ruff, L. J. and de Koker, N. (2012). The effects of lithospheric thickness and density structure on Earth’s stress field. Geophysical Journal International, 188(1), 117, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2011.05248.x.Google Scholar
Pascal, C. (2006). On the role of heat flow, lithosphere thickness and lithosphere density on gravitational potential stresses. Tectonophysics, 425, 8399, doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2006.07.012.Google Scholar
Pascal, C., Roberts, D. and Gabrielsen, R. H. (2010). Tectonic significance of present-day stress relief phenomena in formerly glaciated regions. Journal of the Geological Society, 167, 363371, doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492009-136.Google Scholar
Reiter, K. and Heidbach, O. (2014). 3-D geomechanical-numerical model of the contemporary crustal stress state in the Alberta Basin (Canada). Solid Earth, 5(2), 11231149, doi.org/10.5194/se-5-1123-2014.Google Scholar
Sheorey, P. (1994). A theory for in situ stresses in isotropic and transverseley isotropic rock. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences and Geomechanics, 31(1), 2334, doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(94)92312-4.Google Scholar
Steffen, H. and Wu, P. (2011). Glacial isostatic adjustment in Fennoscandia – a review of data and modelling. Journal of Geodynamics, 52, 169-204, doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2011.03.002.Google Scholar
Steffen, R., Eaton, D. W. and Wu, P. (2012). Moment tensors, state of stress and their relation to post-glacial rebound in northeastern Canada. Geophysical Journal International, 189, 1741-1752, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2012.05452.x.Google Scholar
Steffen, R., Wu, P., Steffen, H. and Eaton, D. W. (2014). On the implementation of faults in finite-element glacial isostatic adjustment models. Computers & Geosciences, 62, 150159, doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2013.06.012.Google Scholar
Steffen, H., Steffen, R. and Tarasov, L. (2019). Modelling of glacially-induced stress changes in Latvia, Lithuania and the Kaliningrad District of Russia. Baltica, 32(1), 7890, doi.org/10.5200/baltica.2019.1.7.Google Scholar
Stein, S., Cloetingh, S., Sleep, N. and Wortel, R. (1989). Passive margin earthquakes, stresses and rheology. In Gregersen, S. and Basham, P., eds., Earthquakes at North-Atlantic Passive Margins: Neotectonics and Postglacial Rebound, NATO ASI Series C 266, Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 231259.Google Scholar
Stephansson, O. (1993). Stress in the Fennoscandian Shield. In Hudson, J. A., Ed., Rock Testing and Site Characterization. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 445459, doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-042066-0.50024-0.Google Scholar
Townend, J. and Zoback, M. D. (2000). How faulting keeps the crust strong. Geology, 28(5), 399402, doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<399:HFKTCS>2.0.CO;2.Google Scholar
Turcotte, D. and Schubert, G. (2014). Geodynamics, 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Wu, P. and Hasegawa, H. S. (1996a). Induced stresses and fault potential in eastern Canada due to a disc load: a preliminary analysis. Geophysical Journal International, 125(2), 415430, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb00008.x.Google Scholar
Wu, P. and Hasegawa, H. S. (1996b). Induced stresses and fault potential in eastern Canada due to a realistic load: a preliminary analysis. Geophysical Journal International, 127(1), 215229, doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb01546.x.Google Scholar
Wu, P., Johnston, P. and Lambeck, K. (1999). Postglacial rebound and fault instability in Fennoscandia. Geophysical Journal International, 139, 657670, doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.1999.00963.x.Google Scholar
Yale, D. P. (2003). Fault and stress magnitude controls on variations in the orientation of in situ stress. In M. S. Ameen, ed., Fracture and In-Situ Stress Characterization of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs. Geological Society, London, Special Publication, Vol. 209, pp. 5564, doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.209.01.06.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y., Person, M., Voller, V. et al. (2018). Hydromechanical impacts of Pleistocene glaciations on pore fluid pressure evolution, rock failure, and brine migration within sedimentary basins and the crystalline basement. Water Resources Research, 54, doi.org/10.1029/2017WR022464.Google Scholar
Zoback, M. L., Zoback, M., Adams, J. et al. (1989). Global patterns of tectonic stress. Nature, 341, 291298, doi.org/10.1038/341291a0.Google Scholar
Zoback, M. L. (1992). First and second order patterns of stress in the lithosphere: the World Stress Map Project. Journal of Geophysical Research, 97, 1170311728, doi.org/10.1029/92jb00132.Google Scholar
Zoback, M. D. and Townend, J. (2001). Implications of hydrostatic pore pressures and high crustal strength for the deformation of intraplate lithosphere. Tectonophysics, 336, 1930, doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00091-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zoback, M. L. and Zoback, M. D. (2015). Lithosphere stress and deformation. In Schubert, G., ed., Treatise on Geophysics. Crust and Lithosphere Dynamics, Vol. 6, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 253273.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×